Cognitions of test-anxious children.

Compared the cognitions of 294 low, moderate, and high test-anxious (the Test Anxiety Scale for Children) 5th and 6th graders in an analog test situation. High test-anxious Ss reported significantly more task-debilitating cognitions than either moderate- or low-anxious Ss, including negative evaluations and off-task thoughts. High test-anxious Ss also reported fewer positive evaluations than low test-anxious Ss, whereas moderately anxious Ss did not differ significantly from either extreme group. It was unexpected that the moderate- and high-anxious groups reported significantly more on-task thoughts than the low-anxious group and did not significantly differ from each other. Both test anxiety and cognitions showed significant although modest relations with actual task performance after the effects of ability were partialled out. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attribution, cognitive interference, and the generalization of learned helplessness.

We assessed the role of off-task cognitions in mediating the performance effects of global and specific attributions for failure. In Experiment 1, subjects were divided into global and specific attributors and were exposed to either no feedback or failure feedback. In Experiment 2, subjects were exposed to no feedback or to unsolvable problems wherein they received attribution for failure to specific or global causes. Experiment 3 added a condition in which subjects were restrained from engaging in off-task cognitions. Results showed that exposure to unsolvable problems deteriorated performance and increased off-task cognitions mainly among subjects who attributed failure to global causes. In addition, the enhancement of off-task cognitions interfered with performance following unsolvable problems. The introduction of instructions that discouraged subjects from engaging in off-task cognitions eliminated the detrimental effects of global attribution. Results are discussed in terms of test anxiety and excuse-making conceptualizations of learned helplessness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-esteem, hypothetical explanations, and verbalization of expectancies on future performance.

A hypothetical explanation task was used to make success- or failure-related cognitions differentially available for 60 high self-esteem (HSE) and 60 low self-esteem (LSE) undergraduates. Ss wrote an explanation for either a hypothetical failure or success, or they wrote no explanation. Half of the Ss in each condition stated performance expectancies. The effects of these variables on subsequent performance were examined. Success explanations increased the performance of both HSE and LSE Ss, whereas failure explanations only decreased the performance of LSE Ss. A content analysis revealed that the content of failure explanations, but not success explanations, was related to self-esteem and subsequent performance. These effects were more pronounced for Ss who stated expectancies, and expectancies were more highly correlated with performance in the explanation conditions than in the no-explanation control condition. Results are discussed in terms of current self-esteem theory and the cognitive processes associated with generating causal scenarios for success and failure, expectations, and performance. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Absence of age-related proneness to short-term retroactive interference in the absence of rehearsal.

Age differences in short-term retroactive interference, unconfounded with age differences in rehearsal in the retention interval of the Brown-Peterson Task, were not found in a cross-sectional study of adults 18–32 and 64–78 years of age. Degree of retroactive interference was manipulated conjointly with distractor interval length (0–25 s). Individual memory span was assessed and used as the list length in order to achieve stimulus equivalence of memory loads across individuals and age groups. An attention-demanding matching task that adjusted itself in difficulty to the individual's attentional capacity was used as the distractor activity. Covert rehearsal during the retention interval was inferred using several measures, including a comparison of distractor task performance in the presence and in the absence of a memory load, and rehearsers were excluded from the primary analyses. We conclude that there is no interference proneness with increasing age in the present study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitions of test-anxious children under naturalistic test-taking conditions.

Investigated the cognitions of 115 low, 126 moderate, and 125 high test-anxious 5th and 6th graders under naturalistic test-taking conditions. 57% of the Ss were female, 88% were White, and 61% were upper middle class. The Ss were classified according to scores on the Test Anxiety Scale for Children. As predicted, high test-anxious Ss showed more task-debilitating cognitions during testing, including more negative self-evaluations and off-task thoughts and fewer positive self-evaluations. High test-anxious Ss also showed relatively high frequencies of on-task thoughts and coping self-statements. The study also examined the role of classroom environment in the test anxiety-performance relation. Relative to their peers, the performance of high test-anxious Ss was debilitated only in classrooms that were high in perceived evaluative threat. Moreover, significant relations between cognitions and mathematic performance were obtained only in high-threat classrooms, and these relations were maintained when the effects of mathematic ability were statistically controlled. It is suggested that future test-anxiety research and clinical intervention might view test anxiety within a broader theoretical context of person-environment fit. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between shyness in children and constricted cognitive control as measured by the Stroop Color-Word Test.

103 4th and 5th graders, rated as either shy or nonshy by their teachers, were administered the Stroop Color-Word Test. Results support the hypothesis that shy Ss would have slower reading rates, which indicates high interference proneness (constricted control), whereas nonshy Ss would have more rapid reading rate, which indicates low interference proneness (flexible control). To determine if the procedures for identifying shy Ss also inadvertently differentiated Ss on cognitive skills (verbal ability), and not simply cognitive styles, a subsample of 32 Ss were administered the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT). Results indicate no significant difference between shy and nonshy Ss' group mean stanine scores on the language section of the SAT. Final classroom grades in reading, spelling, and English were also calculated for these 2 groups. Results indicate that the GPA of the shy group exceeded the GPA of their nonshy peers; however, differences were not significant. It appears, therefore, that the results were not confounded by differences in language ability or academic achievement and that these variables do not account for the distractibility findings. Results support the assumption that shy children are unable to maintain effective performance in the presence of interfering or distracting stimuli. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect, accessibility of material in memory, and behavior: A cognitive loop?

Conducted 2 studies to investigate the effect of good mood on cognitive processes. In Exp I, which was conducted in a shopping mall, a positive feeling state was induced by giving Ss a free gift; good mood, thus induced, was found to improve Ss' evaluations of the performance and service records of products they owned. In Exp II, with 47 undergraduates, affect was induced by having Ss win or lose a computer game in a laboratory setting; Ss who had won the game were better able to recall positive material in memory. Results are discussed in terms of the effect that feelings have accessibility of cognitions. In addition, the nature of affect and the relationship between good mood and behavior (such as helping) are discussed in terms of this proposed cognitive process. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aging and skill acquisition: Learning-performance distinctions.

This research examined the hypothesis that a conservative response bias in older persons interferes with the acquisition and mastery of cognitive skill. Twenty younger and 20 older Ss performed both consistent mapping and varied mapping versions of a memory search task. Half of the Ss in each group performed under speed stress instructions, whereas the remaining Ss performed under accuracy stress instructions. Older Ss exhibited less skilled performance than did younger Ss. A power function analysis attributed this to both age-related differences in the rate of associative learning and differences in asymptotic levels of performance. These results are at odds with A. D. Fisk and W. A. Rogers's (1991) hypothesis that age-related differences in automatization do not occur in memory search tasks. Results are interpreted in terms of a learning vs performance distinction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tapping sensitivity to processing in short-term memory.

Examined the interference between finger tapping and searching in short-term memory (STM). 20 Ss (mean age 22.4 yrs) memorized a set of digits and then executed a series of 17 taps separated by 2 sec subjective time intervals. During each interval, a probe was presented for comparison with the items in the memory set. The amount of processing in STM was varied from series to series by manipulating the number of items in the memory set. Results show that mean duration and variability of intertap intervals increased proportionally with memory set size. This effect is explained as interference between STM processing and the timing component of the tapping performance. The authors suggest that tapping sensitivity to memory load indicates that, under some conditions, variations in tapping performance are valid indicators of STM processing requirements of a concurrent primary task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Functional assessment of problem behavior: A pilot investigation on the comparative and interactive effects of teacher and peer social attention on students in general education settings.

Examined the combined and interactive effects of manipulating teacher and peer attention on the occurrence of problem/inappropriate behavior in general education settings, using 3 non-disabled boys (aged 7–9 yrs). Ss' behaviors were defined as on- or off-task based on the nature of classroom activity or lession, and functional analyses were developed to assess the effects of independent vs small group task, peer attention, and teacher attention on Ss. A strong influence of peer and teacher attention on Ss' problem behavior was found. When peer attention for off-task behavior was high, all Ss engaged in off-task behavior. When teacher attention increased and peer attention was on off-task behavior, Ss increased on-task activity. Results support the use of functional assessment procedures with non-developmentally delayed Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive influences on the development of learned helplessness.

120 college students participated in an experiment concerning the influence of self-statements following failure on subsequent symptoms of learned helplessness (LH). 40 Ss were given solvable concept-formation problems (nonhelpless condition), and 80 Ss were given unsolvable problems (helpless condition). MANOVA revealed a significant difference between helpless and nonhelpless Ss on cognitive/motivational and affective measures of LH and on self-statements regarding performance. However, when multiple regression and correlational analyses were performed within the group of Ss who failed the problems, no stable relationship was found between self-statements (cognitions) about concept-formation performance and the LH measures. Implications for A. T. Beck's (1967) cognitive model of depression and the reformulated LH model of depression (L. Y. Abramson et al, 1978) are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive controls and mental retardation.

Devised a color-digit interference task and 2 sorting tasks as variants of the Stroop Color-Word Test and R. Gardner, et al. (see record 1961-02266-001) sorting tasks, respectively. These tasks proved applicable to a mentally retarded sample (n = 39) and provided reliable measures of 2 cognitive control dimensions (constricted-flexible control and equivalence range). As predicted, the main test scores were significantly more variable in retarded Ss than in normals (n = 32). Analyses of performance on the color-digit interference task indicated that retarded Ss were significantly slower than the normals on all parts of the task, particularly under conditions of distraction (whether inherent in the task or externally imposed). Low IQ retarded Ss were significantly slower than high IQ retarded Ss on all parts of the task. The extreme cognitive control test scores of the retarded Ss, the nature of the attentional deficit among these Ss, and the relevance of a cognitive control approach for the training of retarded persons are discussed. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of cognitive style in a cognitive task: A case favoring the impulsive approach to problem solving.

A task that favored the impulsive approach to problem solving was given to impulsive, reflective, fast/accurate, and slow/inaccurate male 3rd and 4th graders. Ss learned to choose 1 of a pair of multidimensional stimuli based upon a single cue. In 1 condition, the stimuli were composed of many dimensions; in the 2nd condition, the stimuli were composed of few dimensions. Reflective Ss solved the task with few dimensions more quickly than impulsive Ss, whereas impulsive Ss solved the task with many dimensions in fewer trials. Fast/accurate and slow/inaccurate Ss solved problems in an intermediate number of trials but also reversed positions as a function of the number of dimensions. Both speed and accuracy components of cognitive style contributed to performance in the cognitive task. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attentional requirements of automatic and controlled processing.

The attentional demands of automatic and controlled processing were investigated in a dual task paradigm. Ss performed consistent and varied mapping versions of an S. Sternberg (see record 1966-10810-001) memory search task, both separately and together with a recognition running-memory task. In different conditions, Ss were instructed to maximize their performance on either the Sternberg or running memory tasks or to emphasize the tasks equally. Processing priority and memory load had large effects on performance when the variably mapped version of the Sternberg task was paired with the running memory task. Performance decrements in these conditions were accompanied by trade-offs in the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential, presumably reflecting the distribution of attention between the tasks. Performance in the consistently mapped version of the Sternberg task was relatively unaffected by memory load or dual task demands. Large P300s, which were insensitive to manipulations of memory load and priority, were elicited in the consistently mapped conditions. These P300s appear to reflect the obligatory allocation of attention to task-relevant events during automatic processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working-memory-triggered dynamic adjustments in cognitive control.

Dynamic adjustments in cognitive control are well documented in conflict tasks, wherein competition from irrelevant stimulus attributes intensifies selection demands and leads to subsequent performance benefits. The current study investigated whether mnemonic demands, in a working memory (WM) task, can drive similar online control modifications. Demand levels (high vs. low) of WM maintenance (memory load of 2 items vs. 1 item) and delay-spanning distractor interference (confusable vs. not confusable with memoranda) were manipulated using a factorial design during a WM delayed-recognition task. Performance was best subsequent to trials in which both maintenance and distractor interference demands were high, followed by trials with high demand in either of these 2 control domains, and worst following trials with low demand in both domains. These results suggest that dynamic adjustments in cognitive control are not triggered exclusively by conflict-specific contexts but are also triggered by WM demands, revealing a putative mechanism by which this system configures itself for successful task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Short-term memory does not involve the "working memory" of information processing: The demise of a common assumption.

Eight experiments with 98 college students tested the assertion that the capacity limit of short-term memory span (seven plus/minus two "chunks") is related to a fundamental limit in "working memory" of information processing. Each of 2 converging approaches led to findings that deny this hypothesis. The 1st approach examined performance when Ss determined which digit was missing when 8 different digits appeared sequentially in random order. Although this task requires memory for digits, it does not exhibit the properties of short-term memory span (sensitivity to rhythmic patterning and acoustic/articulatory interference). Thus, there must be a working memory that is distinct from the span memory of an ordered-recall task. The 2nd approach required that Ss perform information-processing tasks during the retention interval of memory span. According to the hypothesis that working memory and memory span are equivalent, interference should occur in this paradigm. There was no such interference provided that an initial rehearsal period for the memory span was allowed prior to the intervening task. (77 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impulsivity and perception: Individual differences in the processing of the local and global dimensions of stimuli.

In Exp I, 48 undergraduates differing in impulsivity (as measured by a self-report inventory) performed 2 versions of filtering, interference, and invariant control tasks. In one version, Ss sorted according to the value of the local dimension; in the other, the global dimension was the relevant one. In addition, Ss performed a task in which the 2 dimensions were perfectly correlated. Results show that Ss sorted more quickly when the global dimension was relevant than when the local dimension was relevant. In Exp II, 43 of the Ss from Exp I were used to determine whether failure to find a relationship between impulsivity and filtering performance was due to correlations of local and global dimensions; results were negative. In Exp III, the same 43 Ss used in Exp II were used to test the information-integration hypothesis. Results support the hypothesis—high impulsives were more impaired than other Ss when the task required that they integrate information from the global dimension with information from the local dimension. Findings can be explained in terms of individual differences in the value placed on speed, relative to accuracy, in information processing. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal helplessness and action control: Analysis of achievement-related cognitions, self-assessments, and performance.

Investigated cognitive concomitants of performance changes in an achievement-related context, using 32 undergraduates. Ss' verbalizations of action-oriented and state-oriented cognitions were monitored while they experienced success and failure. An analysis was made of the influence of dispositional action control and perceptions of emotional states and personal control. Results reveal that dispositional action control was an excellent predictor of performance changes that followed failure inductions: Only a state-oriented group displayed performance decrements, whereas an action-oriented group continued to perform well, using effective problem-solving strategies and self-motivating instructions. Whereas action-oriented Ss responded to persistent failure with continuing solution-oriented thinking and developed even more efficient strategies, state-oriented Ss increased emotional and self-evaluative statements, related failure to loss of ability, and used inadequate solution strategies. The 2 groups differed with regard to perceptions of personal control and competence. Results suggest that the debilitating or facilitating influence of failure inductions on performance is mediated by 2 different processing styles of action vs state orientation. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhanced visual memory during hypnosis as mediated by hypnotic responsiveness and cognitive strategies.

Investigated the hypothesis that hypnosis has an enhancing effect on imagery processing, as mediated by hypnotic responsiveness and cognitive strategies. Four experiments with 112 undergraduates compared performance of low and high, or low, medium, and high hypnotically responsive Ss in waking and hypnosis conditions on a successive visual memory discrimination task that required detecting differences between successively presented picture pairs in which 1 member of the pair was slightly altered. Results reveal that hypnotically responsive Ss showed enhanced performance during hypnosis, whereas nonresponsive Ss did not. Hypnotic responsiveness correlated with enhanced performance during hypnosis only. RT was not affected by hypnosis. Ss reported enhanced imagery vividness on the self-report Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire during hypnosis. Two cognitive strategies appeared to mediate visual memory performance: (a) detail strategy, which involved the memorization and rehearsal of individual details for memory, and (b) holistic strategy, which involved looking at and remembering the whole picture with accompanying imagery. Both lows and highs reported similar detail-oriented strategies during waking; only highs shifted to a significantly more holistic strategy during hypnosis. (86 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and the passage of time.

Conducted 3 experiments with 168 female and 108 male undergraduates to assess the relationship of test anxiety and achievement-oriented instructions to time perception. Ss were rated as high-, middle-, or low-test-anxious using the Test Anxiety Scale. After being given either achievement-orienting or neutral instructions, Ss waited for an undesignated period of time and then performed an intellective task. The dependent measures were Ss' estimates of the duration of the waiting and performance periods and their scores on the assigned task. High-test-anxious Ss' time estimates were significantly greater than the estimates of the other Ss, and their performance was at a relatively low level. Evidence is presented supporting the hypothesis that highly anxious persons under stress experience cognitive interference and preoccupation that makes time pass slowly and results in poor performance. Implications are discussed particularly in terms of the need for training programs capable of fostering improved cognitive skills requiring self-control. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)