浇注PBX炸药老化过程中交联密度与力学性能的关系

为分析浇注PBX炸药交联密度与力学性能的关系,在70℃时对浇注PBX炸药样品进行高温加速老化试验,对比分析了平衡溶胀法和核磁共振(NMR)法测定交联密度的差异,研究了其在常温时的抗拉强度(σm)、抗压强度(σb)、压缩率(εb)、抗剪强度(τ)、硬度(SH)与黏结剂母体凝胶分数(G)、交联密度(ve)之间的关系。用动态热机械分析仪(DMA)分析了不同老化时间下样品损耗因子tanδ和黏弹系数的变化规律。结果表明,PBX炸药样品的交联密度在老化初期增加,老化中期略有降低,老化后期又增加;NMR法因其测试简单、快捷,精确度高、试样非破坏性等优点,可以作为今后浇注PBX炸药交联密度表征方法的一个重要发展方向;样品老化过程中,浇注PBX炸药样品的交联密度与各力学性能的变化呈线性相关,其力学损耗降低的原因是黏结剂母体的G和v_e增加,浇注PBX炸药的降解和交联是由黏结剂母体结构变化引起。     

RDX基PBX炸药在被动围压下的力学性能

利用在分离式霍普金森压杆(SHPB)上进行的被动围压试验研究了RDX基PBX炸药的力学性能,获取了不同应变率(830~1 850s-1)下的应力—应变曲线,讨论了围压—轴压之间的关系,计算了该炸药的动态力学性能参量。结果表明,应力—应变曲线峰值点处的应力和应变均随应变率的增加而增加,围压状态下RDX基PBX炸药承受的压力远高于无围压状态;随着应变率的增加,动态屈服强度明显提高,而动态泊松比和动态杨氏模量则基本保持不变。     

RDX基PBX炸药的力学行为和损伤模式

利用电子万能实验机和分离式霍普金森压杆对RDX基PBX炸药进行了实验,获取了不同应变率(10-3～103s-1)下的应力应变曲线,用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)分析了RDX基PBX炸药的微观损伤模式.结果表明,RDX基PBX炸药的力学性能具有明显的应变率效应,失效应力和失效应变均随着应变率的增加而增加.准静态压缩时,试样沿轴线方向开裂,以界面脱粘为主要的损伤模式;而冲击压缩时,试样依然保持原有的块状结构,界面脱粘和晶粒破碎两种损伤模式并存.     

浇注PBX炸药药柱的动态撞击性能

将浇注型PBX-1药柱以150、240m/s速度撞击靶板,用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)技术和差示扫描量热仪(DSC)技术对撞击加载后的样品进行了分析,研究了浇注PBX炸药药柱的动态撞击性能。结果表明,在150、240m/s撞击加载条件下,PBX-1炸药不发生反应或点火;浇注炸药药柱的损伤主要表现为炸药颗粒破碎和颗粒与黏结剂的脱离。随着撞击加载速度的增大,PBX-1炸药颗粒破碎程度增大,炸药颗粒与高分子基体发生脱离现象越严重;PBX-1炸药撞击前后,热分解性能没有发生本质性的变化。     

基于液压致裂法的PBX炸药内部拉伸应力测试可行性研究

为了满足高聚物黏结炸药(PBX)内部拉伸应力测试的需要,利用液压致裂法和孔边应力状态修正实验,建立了基于液压致裂法的PBX炸药内部拉伸应力测试方法。为验证测试方法的有效性,采用材料万能试验机模拟构件内部拉伸应力,结合自主搭建的PBX液压致裂测试平台,开展了不同拉伸应力下的液压致裂应力测试实验。结果表明,直接利用液压致裂法能定性描述PBX炸药的内部拉伸应力,测试结果与预加拉伸应力有较好的相关性(相关系数为98.90%),但不能定量描述;通过对带孔试样进行单轴拉伸实验,获得孔边有效应力集中系数,对液压致裂法的孔边应力状态进行修正,修正后的应力值与预加应力吻合较好,平均相对误差10.67%。建立的测试方法不受测试深度限制,理论上可以测出拉伸应力的大小和方向,是一种基于液压致裂法的PBX炸药内部拉伸应力定量测试方法。     

JOB-9003炸药"激热"冲击损伤破坏及超声特征

进行了未经热处理的JOB-9003塑料粘结炸药(PBX)标准压缩试样的"激热"冲击损伤破坏试验,对试样热冲击试验前后的超声波特性参量进行了检测,试验显示出JOB-9003炸药存在一个明显的"激热"冲击损伤破坏临界温度差,并获得了试样热冲击损伤破坏的超声波参量特征.     

PBX 9501炸药动态增强因子的预测公式

为量化应变率效应对PBX炸药力学性能的影响,引入动态增强因子的概念。以PBX 9501炸药为研究对象,总结并收集了其在不同温度和不同应变率下的压缩强度和拉伸强度数据,利用WLF时温等效原理将不同温度下的数据换算成室温条件对应应变率下的值,补充了缺少的强度数据。基于实验数据,分别拟合了PBX 9501炸药压缩强度和拉伸强度的动态增强因子的预测公式。结果表明,随着应变率的变化,PBX 9501炸药的压缩强度和拉伸强度在双对数坐标下均呈现双线性增长趋势,但是压缩强度和拉伸强度的变化趋势是不同的。在给定的应变率范围内,压缩动态增强因子的最大变化值超过40,而拉伸动态增强因子的最大变化值小于10。用这些经验公式,可预测不同应变率下PBX 9501炸药的强度变化,便于工程应用。     

温压炸药耗氧效应的实验研究

为了评估温压炸药的能量释放效率,通过理论计算和试验测试,得到塑料黏结炸药(PBX)及温压炸药的单位质量耗氧量、绝对耗氧量和爆炸罐中炸药的最佳弥散浓度,依据实验数据评估了炸药的能量释放效率。结果表明,温压炸药的弥散浓度在0.84g/L时爆炸耗氧量最大,其单位质量试验耗氧量是PBX的1.55倍,能量释放效率是PBX的1.13倍。     

高聚物黏结剂对RDX基含铝炸药性能影响的数值计算及实验验证

为研究乙烯-醋酸乙烯酯共聚物(EVA)对RDX基含铝炸药性能的影响,在A-IX-II炸药中添加EVA制备了含铝PBX炸药。用分子动力学(MD)方法计算了黏结剂EVA与A-IX-II炸药各组分的结合能以及作用方式、AIX-II炸药及含铝PBX炸药的力学性能。计算结果表明,EVA与A-IX-II炸药各组分的结合能均大于0,相互作用力以范德华力为主;EVA能够显著提升A-IX-II炸药的力学性能,使其弹性模量从20.58GPa升至33.27GPa。对A-IX-II炸药和含铝PBX炸药进行了静态力学性能试验,计算结果与试验结果一致性较好。     

动态热机械分析法研究HTPB/AP基浇注PBX炸药的老化性能

采用动态热机械分析(DMA)法研究了HTPB/AP基浇注PBX炸药的动态力学性能,利用损耗因子(tanδ)、动态柔量(D′和D″)、黏弹系数和交联密度表征了其在70℃下的老化性能。结果表明,随老化时间的延长,HTPB/AP基浇注PBX炸药的tanδ的β峰值呈先增加后减小的变化趋势,α峰值则持续减小;D′和D″均呈先增加后逐渐减小的变化趋势;黏弹系数C_1增加;交联密度呈现先增加后略有降低再增加的变化规律。同时,扫描电子显微镜(SEM)的分析测定结果也验证了老化过程中造成力学损耗降低的根本原因是黏结剂基体的氧化交联,主要原因是填料/黏结剂的界面脱粘。     

黏结剂对CL-20/FOX-7基PBX性能的影响

为了研究黏结剂对CL-20/FOX-7基PBX性能的影响,分别以Estane、EPDM、ACM、EVA为黏结剂,采用水悬浮法制备了含有不同黏结剂成分的CL-20/FOX-7基高聚物黏结炸药(PBX);采用场发射扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、激光粒度分析仪、X射线衍射仪(XRD)、差示扫描量热仪(DSC)对样品结构、形貌和热分解特性进行了表征;使用撞击感度测试仪、摩擦感度测试仪和小型烤燃实验装置测试了不同样品的机械感度和烤燃特性。结果表明,以EVA为黏结剂制备的CL-20/FOX-7基PBX造型粉颗粒密实,表面光滑且没有脱粘外漏现象,包覆粘结效果最好;以EVA为黏结剂制备的PBX活化能较细化CL-20提高了87.75 kJ/mol,较FOX-7原料提高了42.52 kJ/mol,说明使用EVA的PBX热稳定性较原料有一定提升;同时该PBX样品特性落高(H 50)较细化CL-20提高25.6 cm,摩擦感度爆炸概率降低52%,较使用Estane、EPDM和ACM的PBX样品机械感度更低;使用EVA的PBX药柱在升温速率为6K/min的慢速烤燃条件下,烤燃反应等级为燃烧,说明该配方能够达到烤燃安全试验要求,安全性能较好。     

被动围压下PBX的冲击动态力学性能

采用铝套筒和TATB基PBX,应用霍普金森压杆被动围压试验方法,研究了PBX在围压下的动态力学响应,得到了该PBX不同应变率下的屈服强度.结果表明,随着应变率的提高,屈服强度有所提高;围压状态下PBX承受的应力远高于无围压状态,变形从脆性向塑性转变,样品未发生明显的破坏.     

Dynamic Mechanical Behavior of PBX

The dynamic mechanical properties of PBX1314 and its binder are systematically investigated. Based on split‐Hopkinson pressure bar technique, the experimental results of PBX1314 and its binder are obtained under high strain rate. A constitutive theory is developed for modeling the mechanical response of dynamically loaded PBX1314 binder. To accomplish this aim, the PBX1314 binder is assayed by relaxation tests at different temperatures, in order to apply the time‐temperature superposition principle (TTSP) and raise the master curves, based on WLF equation. The rate dependence of mechanical response of the polymer binder is accounted for by a generalized Maxwell viscoelasticity model. The basis for this work is Mori and Tanaka's effective medium theory. The grains in this analysis are assumed to be spherical and uniformly distributed in the binder. The relaxation constitutive relations of particulate reinforced composites are investigated by Laplace transformation and the corresponding principle. The theoretical prediction coincides with experimental results.     

Effect of inert plasticizers on mechanical,thermal, and sensitivity properties of polyurethane‐based plastic bonded explosives

Mechanical, thermal, and sensitivity properties of plastic bonded explosives (PBX) depend on the type of ingredients in their formulation. Aim of the work is to develop aluminized cast PBX formulations and process conditions by using alternative inert plasticizers to have similar or better properties than PBXN‐109 without compromising sensitivity properties. Although very small portion of total production of plasticizers is used for solid rocket propellant and explosive formulations, they play very significant role in that area. Both inert and energetic plasticizers have involved propellant and explosive formulations to improve process parameters, mechanical properties, and even insensitivity properties of them. Isodecyl pelargonate and dioctyl adipate are the most preferred inert plasticizers in polyurethane based thermoset propellant and explosive formulations. In addition to them, diisononyl adipate and diisononyl phthalate were used and screened as inert plasticizer candidates for aluminized cast PBX formulations. Mechanical, thermal, and sensitivity properties of PBX formulations were studied and compared in detail. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 40907.     

Cast PBX B2238 for Small-Calibre High Performance Insensitive Munitions

Generally speaking, today's small-calibre munitions, filled with conventional melt-cast or pressed high explosives, are classified in the 1.1 or 1.2 Hazard Divisions because they explode when exposed to various threats, such as fuel fire and sympathetic detonation. The RDX-based B2238 composition is a low-cost and less sensitive cast PBX originally developed by SNPE for the initiation of cast PBX main charges. While it is easily initiated with conventional detonators, B2238 offers the same degree of insensitivity as other cast PBXs used for main charges (HEXABU 88A or OCTORANE 86B for example) and does not explode when exposed to fire and/or bullet impact. Feasibility tests carried out on several types of small-calibre munitions have shown B2238 explosive filling to be an excellent solution in the design of small calibre insensitive munitions with a high performance (in terms of fragments and shaped charge jet) comparable to that of the most energetic conventional high explosives such as 98RDX/2wax. As a result, the new IM standards, currently being defined, should allow in the future to reclassify the small-calibre munitions filled with B2238 in Hazard Divisions other than 1.1 and 1.2.     

Dynamic Compressive Properties of Polymer Bonded Explosives under Confining Pressure

Passively confined dynamic impact experiments on PBX1314 specimens are performed by employing aluminum jackets with split Hopkinson pressure bar. The axial and radial stress history curves are measured in the experiments, and the characterizations of the behavior of PBX1314 under dynamic multi‐axial loads are studied. A constitutive relation is developed for modeling the dynamic mechanical responses of PBX1314 by using the Boltzmann superposition principle with a Prony series representation. The material parameters of PBX1314 can be obtained by fitting the modulus master curve. Detailed finite element simulations of the passively confined tests are carried out to evaluate the measure accuracy of the device to the material mechanical behavior. The correctness of the constitutive relation is verified by comparison the finite element simulations with the experiments. Good agreements are obtained.     

PBX炸药剪切流动点火性能的实验研究

为了研究PBX炸药在完全约束加载和剪切流动加载下的点火性能,采用一级轻气炮对完全约束、剪切流动(不同开孔直径)的实验样弹进行加载,采用高速摄影记录了PBX炸药装药在冲击加载过程中的反应情况,并通过压力传感器测得了加载过程中的应力曲线。使用LS-DYNA软件对完全约束加载和剪切流动加载进行四分之一模型仿真计算,用完全约束下应力参数进行模型参数校核,使用校核的模型参数对剪切流动实验进行计算,获得了炸药在不同条件下的流动速率等参数。结果表明,炸药在剪切流动加载过程中相比于完全约束的装药更容易发生反应;剪切流动加载过程中,PBX炸药是否发生反应,不仅与剪切流动速率有关,而且还与单位时间流量有关,3 mm开孔直径单位时间流量比2 mm开孔直径增加62%。     

Oblique Impacts and Friction of HMX and/or TATB‐based PBXs

Transportation, handling, vibrations can lead to dynamic loadings requiring the characterization of the safety of plastic‐bonded explosives (PBX). One of the addressed situations is the fall of explosive on a surface. Knowing that initiation can occur at a lower height during a vertical fall of a projectile on an inclined target than on a horizontal one, devices were developed to determine the critical thresholds. In this paper, data obtained on four HMX and/or TATB‐based PBXs using pendulum drop configurations are detailed. Two analytical models are compared to estimate the heat released by friction at the interface. The model proposed in this paper yields the better agreement with data, and with finite element numerical simulations of the oblique impact on a given PBX. Lastly, the mechanical dissipation at the interface is estimated using this model and the simulations. This paper confirms that PBX/target friction cannot be the heating mechanism leading to initiation during oblique impacts.     

Reduced Sensitivity RDX Obtained From Bachmann RDX

In recent years much interest has been generated in a quality of reduced sensitivity RDX (RS‐RDX), like I‐RDX^® which, when incorporated in cast cure and even pressable plastic bonded explosives (PBX compositions), can confer reduced shock sensitivity as measured through gap test. At crystal level, lot of work has been done to try to determine which property or properties may explain the behaviour of the corresponding cast PBX composition. But up to now, and despite an international inter‐laboratory comparison (Round Robin) of seven lots of RDX from five different manufacturers conducted from 2003 to 2005, even if some techniques lead to interesting results, there is no dedicated specification to apply to RS‐RDX. This quality (I‐RDX^®) has proved to retain its low sensitivity even after ageing, which does not seem to be the case for standard RDX produced by the Bachmann process (when re‐crystallized under I‐RDX conditions in order to obtain RS‐RDX). It has been shown that the higher sensitivity of RDX produced by the Bachmann process, or the evolution of sensitivity after ageing of RS‐RDX produced from Bachmann RDX may be linked to the presence of octogen (HMX) during the crystallization process. In order to check such hypothesis, low HMX content RDX produced by the Bachmann process has been prepared and evaluated in cast PBX composition (PBX N 109). Results of the characterization of such quality of RDX and its evaluation in cast PBX composition as well as ageing behaviour are presented and discussed; there are indications that removal of HMX from Bachmann RDX may lead to RS‐RDX, which retains its RS character even after ageing.     

Simultaneous Determination of Multiple Mechanical Parameters for a DNAN/HMX Melt‐Cast Explosive by Brazilian Disc Test Combined with Digital Image Correlation Method

Tensile strength, tensile modulus, compressive modulus, and Poisson's ratio are important mechanical parameters for brittle explosives. Generally, these parameters are separately measured by several different tests in which the homogeneity of specimens cannot be guaranteed, thus requiring a simultaneous determination of these mechanical parameters by one test. In this paper, simultaneous determination of multiple mechanical parameters of a DNAN/HMX melt‐cast explosive using Brazilian disc test combined with digital image correlation (DIC) method is described. The method would allow tensile strength, tensile modulus, compressive modulus, and Poisson′s ratio to be obtained simultaneously by one test, when the influences of rigid body motion have been effectively removed. The method principle was introduced in detail in this paper. The effect of temperature on the mechanical properties and the difference between the tensile modulus and compressive modulus of the DNAN/HMX melt‐cast explosive were investigated. The elastic constants and tensile strength were quantitatively analyzed and are qualitatively correct, which demonstrates the effectiveness of the presented method.