Psychological organizations in the United States.

The organizations to which psychologists belonged at the turn of the 20th century were identified. The attributes of the meetings and the membership of those organizations were compared and discussed. In addition to the American Psychological Association, psychologists belonged to the American Philosophical Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science as well as to local and regional organizations. In addition, some psychologists belonged to the Society of Experimental Psychology, but membership in that organization was by invitation only. The topics presented at the meetings of the psychological and philosophical associations often were identical or very similar, and the clear disciplinary separation that is typical in 2000 was rare in 1900. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer consultation groups for private practitioners.

Presents peer consultation groups as an important means for meeting the needs of private practitioners, specifically to improve therapeutic effectiveness, provide practical help, and counter isolation and burnout. Those aspects of trainee supervision that apply to peer consultation are examined, and the literature on peer consultation or supervision is reviewed. Using the authors' own group as a model, the goals, composition, content, and process of a peer consultation group are described. Stages of group development are outlined, and examples of group functioning are presented. Obstacles to participation, other alternatives, and the advantages of peer consultation groups are discussed. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluating the impact of a multicomponent intervention model on teachers' awareness of social networks at the beginning of middle school in rural communities.

A randomized control trial was conducted to evaluate the impact of the Rural Early Adolescent Learning Program (Project REAL) on teachers' awareness of peer groups at the beginning of the 1st year of middle school. Two schools were randomly assigned to the intervention condition and 2 to the control condition. Thirty-nine teachers and 466 students (252 girls, 214 boys) participated in the study. As part of Project REAL, teachers were taught about social dynamics and early adolescent peer group processes. Social cognitive mapping procedures were used to assess and compare students' and teachers' perceptions of 6th grade peer groups. As compared with teachers in the control condition, intervention teachers were more likely to accurately identify peer groups. In addition, when the analyses were restricted to students who were involved in bullying, intervention teachers were more likely to accurately identify peer group membership. However, there were no significant differences between intervention and control teachers for the accurate peer group membership identification of specific bullying involvement subtypes (i.e., bullies, victims, bully victims). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of smoking from adolescence to early adulthood and their psychosocial risk factors.

Objective: To explore patterns of persistence and change in smoking behavior as well as risk factors associated with the developmental course of smoking from age 13 to 25. Design: Data from the public use sample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 5,789) were analyzed using semiparametric group-based modeling. Main Outcome Measures: Smoking quantity-frequency in the past 30 days. Results: Six distinct smoking trajectories were identified: nonsmokers, experimenters, stable light smokers, quitters, late escalators, and stable high smokers. Baseline risk factors that were associated with greater likelihood of membership in all of the smoking trajectory groups compared with nonsmokers included alcohol use, deviance, peer smoking, and (with the exception of the late escalators) drug use. Deviance, peer smoking, and alcohol and drug use also distinguished the likelihood of membership among several of the 5 smoking trajectory groups. Conclusion: The results add to basic etiologic research on developmental pathways of smoking in adolescence and young adulthood by providing evidence of heterogeneity in smoking behavior and prospectively linking different patterns of risk factors with the probability of trajectory group membership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Colorado Medicare study: Perspective of the peer review committee.

In 1977, the Social Security Administration sponsored a study to determine whether including psychologists as independent providers and increasing the dollar limit of Medicare's mental health benefits would have an impact on the availability of mental health care to Medicare recipients, the quality of care provided, and the cost and utilization of the program. The present study discusses peer review issues that emerged from the study: (1) the peer review criteria for quality of care provided, (2) the range of covered services and covered diagnoses under Medicare, (3) the unique patient population aspects, (4) patient participation in the treatment plans and outcome forms used for peer review, (5) the issue of confidentiality of the peer review forms, (6) and findings regarding medical consultation on cases treated by psychologists. The review committee concluded that within the limits of the study, the review system was successful and the quality of services delivered was high. (1 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Two solitudes" in psychology.

Used frequency of citation in a 6-yr sample of the journal literature (143,260 citations referring to the work of 48,903 authors) to identify a group of "visible" psychologists. A sample of 300 authors, out of 3,056 with 6 or more citations was used. A principal component factor analysis of the correlation matrix across journals showed a bipolar factor suggesting that there were 2 groups of journals in the sample: a general-experimental group and a personality-social group. It was found that most "visible" psychologists are cited frequently in only 1 of these groups of journals, and that very few are cited frequently in both groups. (french summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An overview of psychology's human resources: Characteristics and salaries from the 1972 APA survey.

Mailed an extensive questionnaire to the total American Psychological Association (APA) membership and to a sample of nonmembers to obtain information, in areas such as the availability of minority group members and the age distribution of current academicians, relevant to a subsequent restructuring of recruiting and training objectives. The responses of 27,371 members and of 7,990 nonmembers who were eligible for membership in the APA were analyzed in terms of level of highest academic degree, sex, subfield, employment setting, departmental setting in education, type of employer, work activity, years of experience, age, and racial-ethnic identity. A further breakdown of the APA membership data by degree level and by sex is presented, and information on employment status and salaries is evaluated. It is concluded that the APA is more representative of doctorate psychologists than of master's-level psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Varieties of groups and the perception of group entitativity.

Three studies examined perceptions of the entitativity of groups. In Study 1 (U.S.) and Study 2 (Poland), participants rated a sample of 40 groups on 8 properties of groups (e.g., size, duration, group member similarity) and perceived entitativity. Participants also completed a sorting task in which they sorted the groups according to their subjective perceptions of group similarity. Correlational and regression analyses were used to determine the group properties most strongly related to entitativity. Clustering and multidimensional scaling analyses in both studies identified 4 general types of groups (intimacy groups, task groups, social categories, and loose associations). In Study 3, participants rated the properties of groups to which they personally belonged. Study 3 replicated the results of Studies 1 and 2 and demonstrated that participants most strongly valued membership in groups that were perceived as high in entitativity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived competencies, peer group affiliation, and risk behavior among early adolescents.

This study examined the role of self-esteem and peer group membership in risk behavior among 183 8th graders in a multiethnic school. The hypothesis was that domain-specific rather than global self-esteem would be associated with "crowd" membership that in turn would be related to risk behavior. Data were gathered through informant interviews and individual surveys. Domain-specific self-esteem was related to crowd affiliation as well as to alcohol and cigarette use; global self-esteem was not related. Crowd affiliation related to alcohol use and sexual behavior after controlling for the effects of demographic and self-esteem variables, but crowd membership did not fully mediate the relationship between self-esteem and risk behavior. Availability of alcohol and cigarettes mediated the relationship between crowd affiliation and use of these substances. Findings support growing evidence that multiple adolescent peer groups exist and that group membership is closely tied to behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practicing school psychologists: Their characteristics, activities, and populations served.

Administered the National School Psychology Questionnaire, which was developed for the present study, to a nationwide, random sample of 877 school psychologists. The measure was designed to assess demographic characteristics, actual and desired activities, and actual and desired amount of time spent with various student groups. Results indicate that the majority of time was spent in assessment (54%), followed by intervention (23%), consultation (19%), and research (1%). A reduction in assessment and increases in intervention, consultation, and research were desired. Ss devoted 84% of their time to exceptional students, whereas they wanted to spend more time with the general school population and less time with learning disabled and mentally retarded students. A regional analysis indicated a more clinical approach to school psychology in the northeastern US and a more assessment-oriented approach in the Southeast. Ss in schools with a student ratio of less than 1:1,500 devoted more time to intervention and less time to assessment than did Ss in schools where the student-to-psychologist ratio was higher. It is noted that, despite the documented desire by school psychologists to alter their roles and functions, few changes in recent practices have occurred. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical dilemmas encountered by members of the American Psychological Association: A national survey.

A random sample of 1,319 members of the American Psychological Association (APA) were asked to describe incidents that they found ethically challenging or troubling. Responses from 679 psychologists described 703 incidents in 23 categories. This process of gathering critical incidents from the general membership, pioneered by those who developed APA's original code of ethics, may be useful in considering possible revisions of the code and preserving APA's unique approach to identifying ethical principles that address realistically the emerging dilemmas that the diverse membership confronts in the day-to-day work of psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of work groups with stable and unstable membership.

Compared 151 employees in work groups with unstable membership to 582 employees in similar groups with stable membership. Contrary predictions concerning the effects of unstable membership were derived from the R. Likert and the W. G. Bennis conceptions of organization structure. Employees in unstable work groups reported less within-group peer leadership, but more favorable organizational context. Contrary to the prediction derived from Likert's theory, there were no differences on measures of group-referrent intervening variables and end-result variables, suggesting the viability of organic-adaptive structure described by Bennis. Increased lateral linkage among work groups of unstable membership is suggested as the mechanism that appears to compensate for the decreased peer leadership evident in unstable work groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confidence in the practice of clinical psychology.

Tested a theory that confidence in practice is associated with 6 variables. A random sample of 425 (0.8%) of the 53,000 clinical psychologists in private practice in the US in 1988 received a questionnaire by mail: 369 of the questionnaires reached eligible, practicing clinical psychologists; 174 (47%) were returned and usable. Of the 174, there were 111 men and 56 women, and 7 did not report their gender. 66 were in solo practice; 51 in group practice; and 26 in clinics, hospitals, or mental health centers; 31 did not report setting. The independent, positive correlates of confidence were clarity of goal attainment, availability of expertise, experience (below age 50 yrs), and concentration on psychotherapy as opposed to assessment and consultation. Client load and theoretical orientation were not related to confidence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The crisis of legitimacy in APA.

The American Psychological Association (APA) Council's self-analysis of membership (see record 1970-09529-001) fails to note the underrepresentation of the young, Blacks, and women. The APA's legitimacy will depend on greater inclusion of these groups, as well as students, groups affected by psychologists, and protest groups of psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Outstanding contributors to psychology.

Discusses two studies conducted in 1956 and 1957 on the opinions of US psychologists about outstanding colleagues in psychological history. Hope Hunter's "Who's Who in Psychological America" assessed which American psychologists were considered "outstanding" among a random sample of APA members. In 1957, Lynn Wickard conducted a questionnaire study ("Psychological America's Who's Who") to determine how American psychologists would rate psychologists disregarding national location. It is concluded that because there is some correlation of age with membership status, the differences in the opinions of Fellows compared to Associates will indicate changes in the influential figures for different generations of psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-validation of WAIS-R prototypical patterns of intellectual functioning using neuropsychological test scores

A heterogeneous sample of neuropsychiatric patients were classified with respect to the nine prototypical patterns of intellectual functioning observed previously in the WAIS-R standardization sample. Of the manifestly right-handed patients, all but 9.9% could be classified with respect to membership in a prototypical group. This suggested that the most frequent consequences of neuropsychiatric disorders may be to produce patterns which are similar to those found in the standardization sample. However, the prevalence of these groups within the neuropsychiatric sample was dramatically different from those found in the standardization sample. Prototypical patterns with lower levels of overall functioning were also found to have lower scores on neuropsychological tests consistent with a wide range of cognitive, psychomotor, and memory deficits. By demonstrating an association between group membership and neuropsychological performance, these results contribute to the cross-validation of the prototypical patterns observed in the WAIS-R standardization sample.     

Licensed psychologists' knowledge and utilization of a state association colleague assistance committee.

Professional impairment creates concern among colleagues, yet often there is no clear plan for help. Although many state psychological associations have developed programs for assisting psychologists, how practitioners view these programs is unknown. Of a random sample of 633 surveyed psychologists, 48% identified behaviors suggestive of impairment, experiences addressing concerns with colleagues, and opinions and knowledge about their state's program. Respondents believed 10% of colleagues to be impaired and indicated that they would most likely use informal methods for expressing concern. Utilization and knowledge of the colleague assistance program were related to length of licensure and membership in the state psychological association. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

La consultation: Un r?le professionnel à mieux définir.

There are currently increasing requests for psychologists to provide “consultation” services to their peers, other professionals (ex., physicians, social workers, school teachers) or community services (ex., school, community agencies, mental health services, mass-medias). However, so far, there are few empirical works systematically aiming at defining the character of that professional activity and consultation may still be confused with the competency of intervention in the field of clinical psychology. This article aims at defining “consultation” as a specific professional activity, presenting the models of consultation and exploring clinical examples of consultation. Then, practical, ethical and training considerations related to “consultation” activities are discussed and some recommendations are provided, based on available literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hospital practice of psychology resurveyed: 1980.

Considered from the perspective of licensed psychologists in fee-for-service (FFS) practice, the extent of medical staff membership and of clinical privileges is tabulated. The hospital practice of psychology, although still proportionally quite limited, is viewed in the context of interprofessional competition and current trend. Based on survey data from 10 states, it was found that one-fifth of FFS-licensed psychologists reported membership on the medical staff of a hospital, and one-fifth had formal privileges. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The hospital practice of psychology: An interstate comparison.

A study of the extent of membership in the organized medical/professional staff of hospitals among full-time, fee-for-service practitioner psychologists showed that only 25% held membership. This interstate comparison (California, Ohio, Illinois, Texas, Florida, and New York) notes some consistent trends and explainable differences, which appear to be the consequence of restraint trade or boycott rather than disinterest in hospital practice on the part of psychologists. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)