Physicochemical Properties and Fatty Acid Profile of Phoenix Tree Seed and its Oil

Various components of Phoenix tree (Firmiana simplex) seed were determined. Oil, protein, moisture, ash, and fiber accounted for 27.8 ± 0.3, 19.7 ± 0.4, 7.5 ± 0.2, 4.4 ± 0.3, and 31.23 ± 0.93 % (w/w) of the seed, respectively. The acid value, peroxide value, saponification value, and unsaponifiable matter content of Phoenix tree seed oil extracted using the Soxhlet method were 3.73 ± 0.02 mg KOH/g, 1.97 ± 0.21 mmol/kg, 183.74 ± 2.37 mg KOH/g, and 0.90 ± 0.05 g/100 g, respectively. The total tocopherol content was 54.5 ± 0.5 mg/100 g oil, which consisted mainly of δ‐tocopherol (29.5 ± 0.6 mg/100 g oil) and γ‐tocopherol (13.8 ± 0.8 mg/100 g oil). Linoleic acid (L, 30.2 %), oleic acid (O, 22.2 %), and sterculic acid (S, 23.2 %) were the main unsaturated fatty acids of Phoenix tree seed oil. The saturated fatty acids included palmitic acid (17.4 %) and stearic acid (St, 2.9 %). The work shows the first report of sterculic acid in seeds of this species. This oil can be used as a raw material to produce sterculic acid.     

Comparison of Supercritical Fluid and Hexane Extraction Methods in Extracting Kenaf (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hibiscus cannabinus</Emphasis>) Seed Oil Lipids

The objective of this study was to investigate and compare fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols of kenaf seed oil extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and traditional solvent methods. Fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols were determined in the extracted oils as functions of the pressure (400 bar, 600 bar), temperature (40 °C, 80 °C) and CO₂ flow rate (25 g/min) using a 1-L extraction vessel. Gas chromatography was used to characterize fatty acids and sterols of the obtained oils while tocopherols were quantified by HPLC. No differences were found in the fatty acid compositions of the various oil extracts and the main components were found to be linoleic (38%), oleic (35%), palmitic (20%) and stearic acid (3%). Extraction of tocopherols using high pressure (600 bar/40 °C, 600 bar/80 °C) gave higher total tocopherols (88.20 and 85.57 mg/100 g oil, respectively) when compared with hexane extraction which gave yield of 62.38 mg/100 g oil. Extraction of kenaf seed oil using supercritical fluid extraction at high temperature (80 °C) gave higher amounts of sterols when compared with hexane extraction.     

Optimization of rubber seed oil extraction using liquefied dimethyl ether

The objective of this study was to find the optimal condition for the extraction of rubber seed oil (RSO), using liquefied dimethyl ether (DME). Response surface methodology with a spherical central composite design model was employed to determine the optimal extraction condition, consisting of a seed moisture content (%wt), a solvent to solid ratio (g/g), and an extraction temperature (°C). A quadratic regression equation suggested the optimal extraction condition was a moisture content of 56.4%wt, a solvent to solid ratio of 6.7 (g/g), and a temperature of 33.3?°C. At this condition, the RSO yield predicted by the model gave a slight deviation of 0.68% from the experimentally validated results (41.48 versus 41.20%). RSO has a kinematic viscosity of 36.8 cSt, an acid value of 10.7 KOH/g oil, a fatty acid content of 5.1% and an unsaturated fatty acid content of 80%, resulting in the potential production of biodiesel, biolubricants, and biodegradable plastics.     

Thermal stabilisation of PVC with metal soaps of Khaya seed oil

Khaya seed meal was extracted with n-hexane. The oil obtained had an iodine value of 68.0 g I₂/100 g, an acid value of 24.0 mg KOH/100 g, free fatty acid 7.64 wt.-%, and a peroxide value of 26.0 meq/kg. The fatty acid profile of the oil showed that oleic acid (54.34 wt.-%), palmitic acid (19.05 wt.-%) and stearic acid (10.42 wt.-%) were the major fatty acid components of the seed oil. Barium, calcium, cadmium, lead and zinc soaps of the seed oil and of its epoxidised derivative were prepared using the precipitation method and the thermal stability examined by thermogravimetry. The stabilising effect of the metal soaps of Khaya seed oil on the thermal degradation of PVC was assessed at 180°C and 190°C from measurements of rates of dehydrochlorination at 1% degradation and of the time required for degradation to attain 1% dehydrochlorination conversion, and changes in intrinsic viscosity and in the levels of unsaturation of the degraded PVC samples. It was found that the metal soaps of Khaya seed oil were effective in stabilising PVC against non-oxidative and oxidative thermal degradation and that the stabilisation effectiveness was of the order: metal soaps of the epoxidised seed oil > metal soaps of the unepoxidised seed oil > seed oil.     

Characteristics of Oil from Hulless Barley (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hordeum vulgare</Emphasis> L.) Bran from Tibet

The bran of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) from Tibet was investigated. This paper reports on the physicochemical characteristics, lipid classes and fatty acids of the oil from the bran. The petroleum (60–90 °C) extract of hulless barley bran was found to be 8.1%. The investigated physiochemical parameters included density at 40 °C (0.96 g/cm³), refractive index at 40 °C (1.41), melting point (30.12 °C), acid value (11.6 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (19.41 μg/g), saponification value (337.62 mg KOH/g), iodine value (113.51 mg iodine/g) and unsaponifiable matter (4.5% of total lipids).The amount of neutral lipids in the crude oil was the highest (94.55% of total lipids), followed by glycolipids (4.20% of the total lipid) and phospholipids (1.25% of the total lipid). Linoleic acid (75.08% of total fatty acids) followed by palmitic acid (20.58% of total fatty acids), were the two major fatty acids in the oil. The results show that the oil from the hulless barley bran could be a good source of valuable essential fatty acids.     

Characteristics and Composition of Watermelon Seed Oil and Solvent Extraction Parameters Effects

Watermelon seed oil characteristics were evaluated to determine whether this oil could be exploited as an edible oil. Hexane extraction of watermelon seeds produced yields of 50% (w/w) oil. The refractive index, saponification and iodine value were 1.4712 (at 25 °C), 200 mg KOH/g and 156 g I/100 g, respectively. The acid and peroxide values were 2.4 mg KOH/g and 3.24 mequiv/kg, respectively. The induction time of the oil was also 5.14 h at 110 °C, which was measured for the first time. Total unsaturation contents of the oil was 81.6%, with linoleic acid (18:2) being the dominant fatty acid (68.3%). Considering that the watermelon seed oil was highly unsaturated, the relatively high induction time might indicate the presence of natural antioxidants. In addition, the influence of extraction parameters on extraction of oil from watermelon seed with hexane as a solvent was studied at several temperatures (40, 50, and 60 °C), times (1, 2, and 3 h) and solvent/kernel ratios (1:1, 2:1, and 3:1). The oil yield was primarily affected by the solvent/kernel ratio and then time and temperature, respectively. The protein content of the oil-free residue was 47%.     

Extraction and Characterization of Montmorency Sour Cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) Pit Oil

Montmorency sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) pit oil (CPO) was extracted and characterized by various methods including: GC, LC–MS, NMR, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X‐ray powder diffraction (XRD). The oil gave an acid value of 1.45 mg KOH/g, saponification value of 193 mg KOH/g and unsaponifiable matter content of 0.72 %. The oil contained oleic (O) and linoleic (l ) acids as the major components with small concentrations of α‐eleostearic acid (El, 9Z,11E,13E‐octadecatrienoic acid) and saturated fatty acid palmitic (P) acid. The CPO contained six major triacyglycerols (TAG), OOO (16.83 %), OLO (16.64 %), LLO (13.20 %), OLP (7.25 %), OOP (6.49 %) and LElL (6.16 %) plus a number of other minor TAG. The TAG containing at least one saturated fatty acid constitute 33 % of the total. The polymorphic behavior of CPO as studied by DSC and XRD confirmed the presence of α, β′ and β crystal forms. The oxidative induction time of CPO was 30.3 min at 130 °C and the thermal decomposition temperature was 352 °C.     

Characterization of Fatty Oil of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zizyphi spinosi semen</Emphasis> Obtained by Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Zizyphi spinosi semen (ZSS) has been widely used for treatment of insomnia in oriental countries. The aim of this study is to characterize the fatty oil of ZSS obtained by supercritical fluid extraction in terms of chemical composition and physicochemical properties. The chemical composition, including fatty acids and unsaponifiable constituents, was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometer (GC–MS). The results revealed that 9-octadecenoic acid (43.38 ± 0.03%) and 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (40.58 ± 0.03%) were the main fatty acids, and β-sitosterol (37.39 ± 0.02%) and squalene (30.79 ± 0.01%) were the key unsaponifiables. Furthermore, four indexes were assayed according to Chinese Pharmacopeia (2005) to reflect the physicochemical properties of ZSS oil, their values being determined as follows: acid value (10.3 ± 0.1 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (0.05 ± 0.01 g/100 g), saponification value (194.4 ± 0.5 mg KOH/g) and iodine value (109.7 ± 0.8 g I/100 g). The basic information obtained provides data support for quality evaluation and efficacy research of ZSS oil, and suggests its prospects for development in pharmaceutical and food industries.     

Effect of Extraction Solvent on Oil and Bioactives Composition of Commercial Indian Niger (Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.) Seed

Commercially available niger (Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.) seed was investigated to evaluate the effect of extraction solvent on oil and bioactives composition. For this purpose, niger seeds were subjected to solvent extraction using solvents of different polarity, viz., hexane, petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, methanol and ethanol. The oil content of niger seeds obtained after extraction with solvents of different polarities was in the range of 31.8–41.3 g/100 g. The extracted oil was characterized by the following parameters: color (40.0–95.0 Lovibond units), free fatty acids (3.6–12.3 g/100 g), peroxide value (3.2–7.8 mequiv O₂/kg), iodine value (137.6–140.3 cg I₂/g), saponification value (177.3–185.9 mg KOH/g) and unsaponifiable matter (1.3–4.3 g/100 g). Among fatty acids, linoleic acid (69.4–73.2 %) was the major fatty acid and trilinolein (31.2–33.4 %) was the major triacylglycerol. The composition of bioactive molecules was 171.9–345.8 ppm of total tocopherols; 247.1–2,647.7 ppm of total phenolics; 1,249.6–6,309.3 ppm of total sterols and 18.9–181.0 ppm of total carotenoids. Among the tocopherols, α-tocopherol was the major component with 154–276 ppm. Of the total phenolics, vanillic acid with 176–1,709 ppm was the major phenolic compound in the oil extracted using different solvents. Ethanol-extracted oil showed a 13.9-fold better oxidative stability and a higher radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ value of 9.2 mg/mL) compared to hexane-extracted oil (IC₅₀ value of 40.3 mg/mL). This is probably the first report of its kind on solvent extractability of bioactives of niger seed.     

Kinetics of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of borage and evening primrose seed oil

In the present work, high‐pressure extraction of borage (Borago officinalis L.) and evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) seed oil, containing the valuable γ‐linolenic acid (GLA), has been investigated. Extraction was performed with supercritical carbon dioxide on a semi‐continuous flow apparatus at pressures of 200 and 300 bar, and at temperatures of 40 and 60 °C. A constant flow rate of carbon dioxide in the range from 0.17 to 0.20 kg/h was maintained during extraction. The extraction yields obtained using dense CO₂ were similar to those obtained with conventional extraction using hexane as solvent. The composition of extracted crude oil was determined by GC analysis. The best results were obtained at 300 bar and 40 °C for both seed types extracted, where the quality of oil was highest with regard to GLA content. The evening primrose seed oil extracted with supercritical fluid extraction was particularly rich in unsaturated fatty acids: up to 89.7 wt‐% of total free fatty acids in the oil. The dynamic behavior of the extraction runs was analyzed using two mathematical models for describing the constant rate period and the subsequent falling rate period. Based on the experimental data, external mass transfer coefficients, diffusion coefficients and diffusivity in solid phase were estimated. Results showed good agreement between calculated and experimental data.     

Chemical Properties and Fatty Acid Composition of Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. Seed Oil

The physicochemical and fatty acid compositions of seed oil extracted from Thunbergia fragrans were determined. The oil content, free fatty acids, peroxide value, saponification value and iodine value were 21.70 %, 2.25 % (as oleic acid), 9.6 (mequiv. O₂/kg), 191.71 (mg KOH/g) and 127.84 (g/100 g oil) respectively. The fatty acid profiles of the methyl esters showed the presence of 90.16 % unsaturated fatty acids and 9.84 % saturated fatty acids. Palmitoleic acid, which is usually found in marine foods and is unique in seed oils of botanical origin, was the major component (79.24 %). The oil can also be used in industries for the preparation of liquid soaps, shampoos and alkyd resin.     

Deacidification of black cumin seed oil by selective supercritical carbon dioxide extraction

The deacidification of high-acidity oils from Black cumin seeds (Nigella sativa) was investigated with supercritical carbon dioxide at two temperatures (40 and 60°C), pressures (15 and 20 MPa) and polarities (pure CO₂ and CO₂/10% MeOH). For pure CO₂ at a relatively low pressure (15 MPa) and relatively high temperature (60°C), the deacidification of a highacidity (37.7 wt% free fatty acid) oil to a low-acidity (7.8 wt% free fatty acid) oil was achieved. The free fatty acids were quantitatively (90 wt%) extracted from the oil and left the majority (77 wt%) of the valuable neutral oils in the seed to be recovered at a later stage by using a higher extraction pressure. By reducing the extraction temperature to 40°C, increasing the extraction pressure to 20 MPa, or increasing the polarity of the supercritical fluid via the addition of a methanol modifier, the selectivity of the extraction was significantly reduced; the amount of neutral oil that co-extracted with the free fatty acids was increased from 23 to 94 wt%.     

Enzyme‐assisted aqueous extraction of oil and protein from canola (Brassica napus L.) seeds

The emphasis of this study was to investigate the effect of enzymes on aqueous extraction of canola (Brassica napus L.) seed oil and protein. Four enzymes, Protex 7L, Multifect Pectinase FE, Multifect CX 13L, and Natuzyme, were tested for their effectiveness in releasing oil and protein during aqueous extraction. The enzyme‐extracted oil content of canola seeds (22.2–26.0%) was found to be significantly (p <0.05) higher than that of the control (without enzyme) (16.48%). An appreciable amount of protein (3.5–5.9%) originally present in the seed was extracted into the aqueous and creamy phases during aqueous extraction of oil. The physicochemical properties of oils extracted from canola seed by conventional solvent extraction, and aqueous extraction, with or without enzyme addition were compared. Significant (p <0.05) differences were observed in free fatty acid content, specific extinctions at 232 and 270 nm, peroxide value, color (1‐inch cell) and concentration of tocopherols (α, γ, and δ). However, no significant variation (p <0.05) was observed in iodine value, refractive index (40 °C), density (24 °C), saponification value, unsaponifiable matter and fatty acid composition. A better oil quality was obtained with aqueous extraction (with and without enzyme) than with solvent extraction. While the enzymes enhanced the oil extraction, the oil yield was still significantly (p <0.05) lower than that obtained by solvent (hexane) extraction.     

Purification Process,Physicochemical Properties,and Fatty Acid Composition of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens Linnaeus) Larvae Oil

This study presented a refining process and reported on fatty acid composition and the physicochemical properties of the oil from black soldier fly larvae (BSFL). Crude larvae oil was purified through four steps consisting of degumming, neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization. Optimum degumming conditions that give the highest phospholipid weight and oil consisted of water concentration of 7% (v/v), followed by addition of H₂SO₄ at a concentration of 0.5% (v/v). Optimum conditions for saponification that maximize saponification value and free fatty acid (FFA) value were 0.4 mg NaOH/100 g oil, 1 hour, and 80 °C of NaOH quantity, reaction time, and temperature, respectively. The oil was then dehydrated using 10 mg Na₂SO₄/g oil. The bleaching process that gives maximum oil yield consisted of activated carbon at concentration of 5% (w/w), followed by centrifugation at a speed of 5000 rpm (radius = 86 mm) for 30 min. The contents of lauric acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid in purified oil were 28.8%, 11.1%, and 0.4%, respectively. Physicochemical properties of the refined oil included viscosity of 96 ± 0.14 cP (measured at 20 °C), FFA value of 0.45 ± 0.017%, acid value of 0.9 ± 0.043 mg KOH g⁻¹, saponification value of 215.78 mg KOH g⁻¹, iodine value of 53.7 gI₂/100 g, and peroxide index of 133 mEq kg⁻¹.     

Composition and physicochemical properties of Combretum collinum,Combretum micranthum,Combretum nigricans,and Combretum niorense seeds and seed oils from Burkina Faso

Combretum collinum, Combretum micranthum, Combretum nigricans, and Combretum niorense are abundant unconventional seed oils of the African savannah. In this study, the proximate, mineral, amino acid, fatty acid, and triacylglycerol compositions of the four seed oils were quantified, and the oxidative and physicochemical properties were investigated. The amino acid, fatty acid, and triacylglycerol compositions were determined by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography respectively. Carbohydrates (57.35%–64.20%) followed by crude oils (20.07%–22.60%), proteins (11.95%–15.86%), and ashes (3.78%–6.19%) were the main constituents of the four seed species. The highest ash, crude fat, and protein contents were found in C. collinum, C. nigricans, and C. niorense, respectively. All four seed species were rich in Ca, K and Mg, and poor in methionine, cysteine, and lysine. The four seed oils had high saponification values (198.46–202.71 mgKOH/g), low acidity (1.12–2.26 mg of KOH/g of oil), and peroxide values (1.19–1.98 mEqO₂/kg of oil). The seed oils of C. micranthum and C. collinum exhibited the highest thermal oxidative stability (8.10 and 9.79 h at 160°C). Oleic (40.49%–56.69%), palmitic (15.17%–24.27%) and linoleic (9.49%–14.50%) acids were the predominant fatty acids of the four seed oils. The results showed that the four seed species and seed oils had good chemical composition and physicochemical properties making them suitable for food and non-food application.     

Antioxidant Activity and Total Polyphenols Content of Camellia Oil Extracted by Optimized Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

In this study, Camellia oil is co-extracted from Camellia oleifera seeds and green tea scraps by supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂), which is optimized on the extraction yield, ABTS-scavenging activity, and total polyphenols content (TPC) of oil by single-factor experiments combined with response surface methodology (RSM). The extraction temperature, pressure, dynamic time, carbon dioxide (CO₂) flow rate, and seed mass ratio were investigated with single-factor experiments. The results indicated the optimum CO₂ flow rate and dynamic extraction time were 15 L hour⁻¹ and 60 min (i.e., 2.382 kg CO₂/100 g sample). Furthermore, the complicated effects of extraction temperature (40–50 °C), pressure (20–30 MPa), and seed mass ratio (0.25–0.75) were optimized by RSM based on the Box–Behnken design (BBD). The models with high R-squared values were obtained and used to predict the optimum operating conditions of the process. Under the optimum operating conditions (i.e., temperature of 46 °C, pressure of 30 MPa, and seed mass ratio of 0.35), the extraction yield, ABTS-scavenging activity, and TPC of oil were 14.43 ± 0.17 g/100 g sample, 73.70 ± 0.34%, and 2.18 ± 0.05 mg GAE/g oil, which were in good agreement with the predicted values. In addition, the experiments indicated that the Camellia oil obtained was rich in polyphenols, resulting in better oxidation stability and antioxidant activity than the original oil.     

Fatty acid composition and physicochemical properties of ostrich fat extracted by supercritical fluid extraction

The objective of this study was to determine the fatty acid composition and physicochemical properties of ostrich fat obtained by supercritical fluid extraction. The fatty acid composition was analysed by GC‐MS and the result revealed that ostrich fat contained 9‐octadecenoic acid (40.7 ± 0.3%), hexadecanoic acid (32.5 ± 0.3%), octadecanoic acid (7.43 ± 0.05%), 9, 12‐octadecadience acid (7.38 ± 0.02%) and 9‐hexadecenoic acid (7.13 ± 0.15%) as the major components. Furthermore, seven physicochemical indexes were assessed according to Chinese Pharmacopeia (2005) and relevant regulations as follows: relative density (0.92 ± 0.02%), melting point (34.7 ± 0.4°C), acid value (0.84 ± 0.02 mg KOH/g), peroxide value (0.10 ± 0.01 g/100 g), saponification value (226 ± 3 mg KOH/g), ester value (225 ± 3 mg KOH/g) and iodine value (74.6 ± 0.8 g I/100 g). It can be inferred from the basic information that ostrich fat is a promising raw material for the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries. Practical applications : With the increasing attention being paid to ostrich fat, it is necessary to elucidate the fatty acid composition and physicochemical properties of this natural product. This basic information not only reveals the essential characteristics of ostrich fat, but also provides the data support for the quality evaluation and efficacy research.     

Tough thermosetting polyurethanes and adhesives from rubber seed oil by hydroformylation

Rubber seed oil (RSO), extracted from the seeds of rubber trees, is inedible oil with high free fatty acid content. In order to add value to RSO, we prepared a polyol with primary OH groups via hydroformylation/hydrogenation. Free hydroxy fatty acids formed in the process were utilized as reactive diluents, viscosity reducers, and adhesion promoters through hydrogen bonding with the substrate. The structures of the oil and polyol were analyzed using a range of analytical methods. The polyol had a hydroxyl number of 244 mg KOH g⁻¹ and an acid number of 21 mg KOH g⁻¹. The polyurethane prepared from this polyol and diphenylmethane diisocyanate was a highly crosslinked, tough material with a glass transition at 44 °C, high tensile strength and elongation, and attractive electrical properties. When used as a wood adhesive, it displayed extraordinary shear strength characterized by substrate wood failure rather than cohesive failure of the polymer. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020 , 137, 48509.     

Physicochemical Characteristics of Nigella Seed (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nigella sativa</Emphasis> L<Emphasis Type="Italic">.</Emphasis>) Oil as Affected by Different Extraction Methods

The physicochemical properties of crude Nigella seed (Nigella sativa L.) oil which was extracted using Soxhlet, Modified Bligh–Dyer and Hexane extraction methods were determined. The effect of different extraction methods which includes different parameters, such as temperature, time and solvent on the extraction yield and the physicochemical properties were investigated. The experimental results showed that temperature, different solvents and extraction time had the most significant effect on the yield of the Nigella oil extracts. The fatty acid (FA) compositions of Nigella seed oil were further analyzed by gas chromatography to compare the extraction methods. The C16:0, C18:1 and C18:2 have been identified to be the dominant fatty acids in the Nigella seed oils. However, the main triacylglycerol (TAG) was LLL followed by OLL and PLL. The FA and TAG content showed that the composition of the Nigella seed oil extracted by different methods was mostly similar, whereas relative concentration of the identified compounds were apparently different according to the extraction methods. The melting and crystallization temperatures of the oil extracted by Soxhlet were −2.54 and −55.76 °C, respectively. The general characteristics of the Nigella seed oil obtained by different extraction methods were further compared. Where the Soxhlet extraction method was considered to be the optimum process for extracting Nigella seed oil with a higher quality with respect to the other two processes.     

Extraction of cottonseed oil using subcritical water technology

This work represents the extraction of cottonseed oil using subcritical water. The extraction efficiencies of different range temperatures (180–280°C), having mean particle size range from 3 mm to less than 0.5 mm, water:seed ratios of 0.5:1, 1:1, and 2:1, and extraction times in the range of 5–60 min were all investigated. The composition of the extracted oil, using the subcritical water, was analyzed by gas‐liquid chromatography and compared with that extracted using traditional hexane extraction. The results showed that the optimum temperature, mean particle size, water:seed ratio, and extraction time were 270°C, <0.5 mm, 2:1, and 30 min, respectively. In addition the extracted oil was identical to that extracted using the traditional hexane method. © 2010 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2011