High-strength Cu-Ni-Sn alloys by thermomechanical processing

The influence of prior cold work on the aging characteristics and mechanical properties response for copper-rich alloys in the Cu-Ni-Sn system has been investigated. It has been established^15,16 that there exists a spinodal mode of decomposition below a critical temperatureT _R, 200 to 300°C below the equilibrium phase boundary in this system. Significant age hardening response is observed in this region; however, fracture ductility is severely impaired due to a grain boundary precipitate network which develops after relatively short aging times. Cold work prior to low temperature aging is found to have relatively little influence on the incubation time for this embrittling network. It does, however, profoundly enhance the kinetics of the continuous (spinodal) transformation. It is observed that for broad variations in composition, critical combinations of prior cold work, aging time and temperature yield material with unique combinations of. yield stress and fracture ductility (for example, a Cu-9 wt pct Ni-6 wt pct Sn alloy may be processed to exhibit an 0.01 pct offset yield of 174,000 psi in conjunction with a 55 pct R.A. on fracture; significantly higher 0.01 pct offset yield values may be achieved at some reduction in fracture ductility for other NiJSn ratios). It is concluded that the resultant ductileJbrittle properties response is a consequence of a critical compctitive balance between amplitude development in the modulated structure and nucleation of the grain boundary network. The minimum level of prior cold work required to effect this balance in the Cu-9 wt pct Ni-6 wt pct Sn alloy is 75 pct R.A. The present levels of yield stressJfracture ductility values reported, to the best of our knowledge, are unsurpassed by those of any other copper-base alloy system (at a significant cost reduction to the Cu-Be alloys) and suggest the potential yet to be realized in other systems exhibiting this mode of decomposition.     

Modeling of thermomechanical processing of heat-treatable aluminum alloys

This paper describes formulation of a model for calculating recrystallized grain size for heat-treatable aluminum alloys subjected to thermomechanical processing for grain size control. When combined with Zerer's equation for the limiting grain size during grain growth in particle-containing materials, the model can be used to calculate the stable grain size after thermomechanical processing. A set of adjunct models and experimental observations have been used to relate alloy composition and processing parameters to the intermediate variables which are inputs to the model for recrystallized grain size. Model results are compared with experimental data from various sources. Modeling results exhibit all of the trends observed in the experimentally-determined grain sizes for AA7075, for AA6063, and for modified AA7475 alloys containing different dispersoid-forming additions.     

Evolution of texture during thermomechanical processing of titanium and its alloys

The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive and coordinated review of the evolution of texture during thermomechanical processing of titanium and its alloys. In general, the evolution of texture depends on several factors such as deformation temperature, mode of deformation (rolling, forging and extrusion), initial texture and microstructure, degree and rate of deformation and alloying elements. Phase transformation textures and associated variant selection mechanisms as function of initial texture and heat treatment have also been discussed. The chronological developments of texture modelling and deformation mechanisms in these alloys are presented.     

High strength copper alloys by thermomechanical treatments

A thermomechanical processing technique for in creasing the strength of copper alloys is described. Alloys studied include phosphor bronze (5 pct Sn), nickel silver (12 pct Ni-28 pct Zn), tin-modified cupronickel (9 pct Ni-2 pctSn), and Cu?Be (2 pct Be). In this technique, the material is cold-rolled to about 95 pct reduction in thickness followed by heat treatment below the recrystallization temperature. The severe cold work results in increased strenght through strain hardening and texture strengthening, but at the expense of decreased ductility. The terminal heat treatment recovers the ductility while maintaining or increasing the strength imparted by cold work alone. Preliminary results indicate that cold work-accelerated precipitation is chiefly responsible for the strength increase during heat treatment. As a result of the present processing, the copper alloys exhibit higher yield strengths for given amounts of ductility than have heretofore been attained.     

Improved fatigue resistance of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu (7075) alloys through thermomechanical processing

To decrease the accumulation of damage during long-life low-stress cyclic loading, microstructures must accommodate inelastic deformation by homogeneous or “dispersed” slip rather than by localized slip concentrations. In age-hardening aluminum alloys this requirement can be met by introducing a dense and uniform dislocation forest through suitable thermo-mechanical treatments. Such a treatment was developed for Al-Zn-Mg-Cu (7075) alloys, involving a process cycle of solution annealing, partial aging, mechanical working and final aging. The fatigue properties (S-N curves) of commercial and high-purity 7075TMT are compared with conventional 7075-T651 properties; with zero mean stress the alternating stress to cause failure in 10⁷ cycles is more than 25 pct higher for commercial-purity 7075TMT and almost 50 pct higher for high-purity 7075TMT. The results emphasize the importance of microstructural control when high fatigue resistance is required. F. OSTERMANN, formerly with Air Force Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.     

Effects of alloy modification and thermomechanical processing on recrystallization of Al-Mg-Mn alloys

The 5083 Al alloy (Al-4.75Mg-0.8Mn) holds potential for superplastic forming (SPF), but slow rates of forming limit its use for many applications. Higher strain rates are believed possible through the development of finer grained microstructures or stabilized subgrain structures. Grain sizes after recrystallization and recrystallization characteristics are known to be dependent on the amount and distribution of second-phase particles in the matrix. In this study, the concentration and sizes of such particles were varied by additions of particle-forming elements of Mn and Zr and by modifications of the rolling and aging schedules (thermomechanical processing (TMP)). The investigation involved studying recrystallization kinetics at different temperatures and correlating the grain sizes with particle sizes and volume fractions. The addition of Mn and Zr, for the composition ranges and TMP methods studied, resulted in a substantial reduction of the recrystallization kinetics, but complete suppression of static recrystallization (or subgrain stabilization) was not observed. However, statically recrystallized grain sizes as small as 6 μm were achieved.     

Grain refinement in 7075 aluminum by thermomechanical processing

A thermomechanical process for grain refinement in precipitation hardening aluminum alloys is reported. The process includes severe overaging, deformation, and recrystallization steps. Microstructural studies by optical and transmission electron microscopy of grain refinement in 7075 aluminum have revealed that precipitates formed during the overaging step create preferential nucleation sites for recrystallizing grains. The relationship between precipitate density following severe overaging and recrystallized grain density has been investigated; the results show that the localized deformation zones associated with particles larger than about 0.75 μ m can act at preferential nucleation sites for recrystallizing grains. The density of particles capable of producing nucleation sites for new grains is approximately ten times greater than the density of recrystallized grains. A close relationship between dislocation cell size after the deformation step and recrystallized grain density has also been established. Both quantities saturate for rolling reductions larger than approximately 85 pct. The grain size produced in 2.5 mm thick sheet by the optimum processing schedule is approximately 10 μm in longitudinal and long transverse directions and 6 μm in the short transverse direction.     

Effect of thermomechanical processing on fatigue crack propagation

The effect of thermomechanical processing on fatigue crack propagation (FCP) is examined for 70/30 brass and 305 stainless steel. It is found that grain size and cold work induced changes in yield strength, ductility, and preferred orientation have a minor effect on FCP. Rather, cyclically stabilized properties of material in the crack tip plastic zone are believed to control the FCP process. Although mechanical processing fails to significantly alter the rate of FCP, it is apparently responsible for the unique fracture path observed in specimens oriented at an angle(A) to the rolling direction. Deviation of the crack path out of the plane of maximum net section stress is believed to be associated with mechanical fibering andJor crystallographic texturing effects. The complex fracture mode transition observed in cold worked 70/30 brass also is associated with the deformation texture of the starting material. For the cold-worked 305 stainless steel, striation spacings are correlated with the stress intensity range for specimens tested in the longitudinal, transverse, and “angle” orientations. Comparison of these data with corresponding macroscopic data indicate that an approximately one-to-one correspondence exists between macroscopic and microscopic fatigue crack growth rates over the range investigated.     

Modification of alpha morphology in Ti-6Al-4V by thermomechanical processing

The modification of lamellar alpha phase in Ti-6A1-4V by hot working was investigated with the aim of controlling morphology (aspect ratio) and final grain size. The effect of strain was studied using forging at 955 °C (1750 °F), followed by annealing at 925 °C (1700 °F) to allow the alpha morphology to adjust. Increasing the deformation from 6.5 pct to 80 pct reduction caused the lamellar alpha morphology to become progressively more equiaxed upon annealing. TEM observations showed that annealing of material deformed to 6.5 pct resulted in recovery of the alpha, without a noticeable change in the morphology, while higher deformation resulted in plate shearing and beta cusp formation. It was found that material with an initial thin alpha plate structure (thickness — 3.4 ώm) breaks up at a lower critical strain than a material with a thicker plate morphology (thickness ≃ 6 μm). The material with thin alpha plates more rapidly forms equiaxed alpha grains separated by beta phase, while the material with a thicker plate structure exhibits more alpha/alpha boundaries after deformation and annealing. The morphology change from alpha lamellae into lower aspect ratio grains was identified to be by a break-up of the alpha lamellae, essentially by a two-step process: a formation of low and high angle alpha/alpha boundaries or shear bands across the alpha plates followed by penetration of beta phase to complete the separation. This break-up takes place during hot deformation and subsequent annealing.     

Cu-Ni-Sn合金的发展和应用

回顾了铍青铜弹性合金的发展和应用,以及其逐步被新型合金代替的趋势。同时,讨论了新型弹性合金,如Cu-Ni-Sn合金的发展状况、制备工艺和组织性能,最后讨论了新型Cu-Ni-Sn合金的研究发展方向。     

Supertransus processing of TiAl-Based alloys

Fine-grained lamellar microstructures would be expected to exhibit high strength, creep resistance, fracture toughness, and moderate ductility. High-temperature extrusion was used to produce fine-grained lamellar microstructures in both ingot metallurgy (I/M) and powder metallurgy (P/M) Ti-48Al-2Nb-2Cr alloys. The effect of processing parameters, such as extrusion temperature and cooling rate, on the microstructure and properties was determined. In addition, the thermal stability of the microstructure was evaluated by subsequent heat treatments. Although fine-grained lamellar microstructures were generated in both ingot and powder metallurgy materials, processing had a significant effect on the microstructure and properties of the resultant materials. This article is based on a presentation made in the symposium “Fundamentals of Gamma Titanium Aluminides,” presented at the TMS Annual Meeting, February 10–12, 1997, Orlando, Florida, under the auspices of the ASM/MSD Flow & Fracture and Phase Transformations Committees.     

From trial and error to computer modelling of thermomechanical processing

Abstract

Since the 1950s, thermomechanical processing in the iron and steel industry has progressed from being skills based, using results from trial and error development work, to being science based, using computer modelling for process optimisation and control, and prediction of product properties. Some of the steps in this evolution are illustrated in the lecture, using hot rolling, as the main example, because The University of Sheffield has been involved in research in this field over the whole of the period. As basic understanding of the physics of the microstructural changes, and the speed of computing have increased, there has been a continuing trend for more complex models to be used for offline optimisation and for online control and property prediction. Such models are now accepted as an economically valuable tool for thermomechanical processing.     

Semisolid processing characteristics of AM series Mg alloys by rheo-diecasting

An investigation has been made into the solidification behavior and microstructural evolution of AM50, AM70, and AM90 alloys during rheo-diecasting, their processibility, and the resulting mechanical properties. It was found that solidification of AM series alloys under intensive melt shearing in the unique twin-screw slurry maker during rheo-diecasting gave rise to numerous spheroidal primary magnesium (Mg) particles that were uniformly present in the microstructure. As a result, the network of the β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ phase was consistently interrupted by these spheroidal and ductile particles. Such a microstructure reduced the obstacle of deformation and the harmfulness of the β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ network on ductility, and therefore improved the ductility of rheo-diecast AM alloys. It was shown that, even with 9 wt pct Al, the elongation of rheo-diecast AM90 still achieved (9 ± 1.2) pct. Rheodiecasting thus provides an attractive processing route for upgrading the alloy specification of AM series alloys by increasing the aluminum (Al) content while ensuring ductility. Assessment of the processibility of AM series alloys for semisolid processing showed that high Al content AM series alloys are more suitable for rheo-diecasting than low Al content alloys, because of the lower sensitivity of solid fraction to temperature, the lower liquidus temperature, and the smaller interval between the semisolid processing temperature and the complete solidification temperature.     

Microstructure-mechanical property relationship to copper alloys with shape memory during thermomechanical treatments

The phase transformations during fabrication and aging after cold deformation in three polychrystalline copper alloys of the Cu-Al-Ni system with shape memory effect (SME) were characterized. Some phase transformations were identified with clear repercussion in their mechanical properties during thermomechanical treatments. Around 430 °C, mutual effects of β-phase recrystallization and precipitation of γ₂ and NiAl phases were observed. Close to 600 °C the dissolution of phase α was observed, beginning transformation into β phase process. Brittle phases such as γ₂ and NiAl began to precipitate during a short exposure time at 380 °C, 585 °C, 600 °C, and 700 °C temperatures. The phase transformations were intensified due to the plastic deformation that acted as a driving force for the diffusion processes. The introduction of chemical elements inhibited the grain growth and increased the structural disorder generating an elevation in the hardness property.     

Behavior of sulfide inclusions during thermomechanical processing of AISI 4340 steel

The morphological and compositional modifications of sulfides in AISI 4340 low alloy steel, in which the sulfur level was raised to about 0.1 pct, were studied during hotrolling at 1223 K followed by homogenization at 1583 K for various lengths of time. The relative plasticity of sulfide inclusions with respect to the steel matrix increased with cooling rate during solidification, hence with iron content. The number of sulfides first increased with homogenization time, reached a maximum and subsequently decreased. Inclusion size exhibited the opposite variation. The sulfide matrix interface area per unit volume of sulfide decreased continuously with homogenization time. These variations were in agreement with observed morphological modifications of sulfides during homogenization. During early stages of homogenization the flattened and elongated sulfide plates in the as-rolled material coarsened and became cylindrical. The cylindrical sulfides, broken into segments which spheroidized and coarsened with time, assumed finally a faceted morphology. During homogenization iron was rejected from the sulfide phase into the surrounding matrix, whereas manganese was accepted, causing the formation of manganese depleted zone around the inclusions. This paper is based on a Ph.D. Thesis submitted by Y. V. Murty to the Department of Metallurgy, University of Connecticut.     

Microstructural development and austempering kinetics of ductile iron during thermomechanical processing

A new method of refining the microstructure of austempered ductile iron (ADI) by thermome chanical processing is investigated. Refinement of microstructure is effected by grain refinement of parent austenite by hot deformation in the austenitizing temperature range, before the austempering treatment. The effects of austenite deformation on the kinetics of austempering reaction and the microstructure development were studied using metallography and X-ray diffraction (XRD), at different austempering temperatures and deformations. The process window for optimum microstructure was determined in terms of the parameters involved. Deformation of 40 to 60 pct could be imparted in the temperature range 900 °C to 1025 °C, resulting in a reduction in the prior austenite grain size by 35 to 50 pct and ferrite size in ausferrite by 70 to 75 pct. The effects of austenitization temperature on the austempered microstructure were also studied.