Stability and attractiveness related to age of scent marks of saddle back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis)

The scent marks of saddle back tamarins remained attractive to conspecifics for 1–3 days depending on the conditions under which they were tested. The monkeys discriminated between gender on the basis of fresh, one-, and two-day-old marks but not on the basis of three- and four-day-old marks.NIH Research Career Development Award, 1973–1978.Camille and Henry Dreyfus Teacher Scholar, 1978–1983. NIH Research Career Development Award, 1980–1985.     

Some communicatory functions of scent marking in the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus oedipus)

The ability of cotton-top tamarins to discriminate between scents from conspecifics and those from other tamarin species, and between scents from conspecific individuals was tested. Cotton-tops scent mark with specialized skin glands in the circumgenital area. Females possess larger glands than males and show more scent-marking behavior. In the first experiment, subjects were presented with a glass rod scented with either material collected from the surface of the scent glands of a conspecific female, with scent material from a female of a related species, or with an unscented rod. Glass rods carrying scent from conspecifics were sniffed more frequently than rods carrying scent from related tamarin species or unscented rods. A second experiment offered a choice between two glass rods, one scent marked by aSaguinus o. oedipus female, the second one scent marked by aSaguinus fusdcollis female. Shelves carrying rods that had been scent marked by conspecifics were contacted more frequently than those carrying rods marked by heterospecific females. Scent marks from conspecific females were also sniffed more frequently. A third experiment compared the level of responses to rods carrying material collected from the scent glands of female individuals to which the subjects had been habituated with their responses to rods carrying scent from females to which they had not been habituated. Contacting and sniffing responses to the scents of novel females were higher than those to the scents of females to which the subjects had been habituated.     

Skin surface microflora of the saddle-back tamarin monkey,Saguinus fuscicollis

The resident skin surface microflora of 12 male and three femaleSaguinus fuscicollis was studied. The suprapubic-circumgenital gland surface and the perirectal area were most heavily colonized (10⁶–10⁸ colony forming units/cm²), but high numbers of organisms were also present on the abdomen, the sternal gland surface, and palms and plantar surfaces. Bacteria were also recovered from hair clippings as well as from shaven skin surface, although at much lower densities (10²–10⁴ colony forming units/cm²). Coagulase negative staphylococci, gram-negative bacteria,Streptococcus species and coryneform bacteria were most dominant.Staphylococcus aureus and species ofBacillus were also present. Fungi, yeast, and dermatophytes were infrequently recovered or completely absent. The microbial flora of these tamarins appears to be closely associated with the secretions of the circumgenital scent gland and would therefore be ideally situated to participate in the generation or modification of chemical signals.     

Primate chemical communication,part III Synthesis of the major volatile constituents of the marmoset (Saguinus fuscicollis) scent mark

This paper presents the stereospecific synthesis of the long-chain butyrate esters (15 in number) which in addition to squalene comprise the major volatile constituents of the scent mark of the marmoset monkey,Saguinus fuscicollis.For part II of this series, see Yarger, R.G., Smith, A.B., III, Preti, G., and Epple, G., 1977.J. Chem. Ecol. 3:45–56.Camille and Henry Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar, 1978–1983.     

Scent marks as social signals inGalago crassicaudatus I. Sex and reproductive status as factors in signals and responses

In simultaneous presentations of the scent marks of male and female conspecifics, thick-tailed galagos (Galago crassicaudatus) of both sexes responded most strongly to the female scent. Males differentiated between the scents most clearly in their sniffing, females in their scent marking in response. The scent of estrus females elicited increased licking of the scent by both sexes. This greater response to female scent and the contrasts in response patterns between the sexes are discussed and related to galago social and spatial relationships in the wild.     

Responses to inter- and intraspecific scent marks in pine martens (Martes martes)

In order to analyze intra and interspecific olfactory discrimination, behavioral responses (sniffing and marking) towards various odors were observed in pine martens (Manes martes). Two adult males and two adult females were tested for intraspecific discrimination of abdominal gland odors and urine. Both sexes sniffed and marked objects carrying their own scent less than unscented objects. There were no differences in sniffing or marking objects impregnated with odors from known and unknown conspecifics of the opposite sex or objects carrying the odor of an unknown male or female. A second experiment with two adult females gave no evidence for interspecific discrimination: no differences emerged when comparing reactions towards marks of pine martens, stone martens (a closely related species), or genets. The most obvious result of this study is the reduced response of pine martens towards their own mark. It is suggested that scent marking in martens may reflect autocommunication, the primary effect being to familiarize an animal with its environment.     

Behavioral responses to own and other species' scent marks inLemur fulvus andLemur macaco

Behavioral responses (duration and frequencies of sniffing, scent marking activity) were studied in one captive group each ofL. fulvus andL. macaco when confronted with their own and other species' scent marks. Both species showed less interest in neutral objects or objects carrying their own group's odor than odors from an unfamiliar group of the same species or from another lemur species. The persistence of scent marks was also investigated.L. fulvus scent appeared to possess greater longevity thanL. macaco scent. Olfactory long-term memory was analyzed inL. fulvus. The results showed that familiar rejected group members could be discriminated from an unfamiliar conspecific through odor cues 10 months after their eviction from the group.     

The major volatile constituents of the scent mark of a South American primateSaguinus fuscicollis,Callithricidae

The major volatile constituents of the scent mark of a South American primate, the marmosetSaguinus fuscicollis have been isolated and identified to be a series of saturated, mono- and diunsaturated fatty alcohols esterified withn-butyric acid. Squalene was also found in the scent mark. The identification and possible significance of these components in marmoset chemical communication are discussed.     

Scent marks as social signals inGalago crassicaudatus II. Discrimination between individuals by scent

Thick-tailed galagos,Galago crassicaudatus argentatus, which had been habituated to the scent marks of a conspecific through repeated presentations, increased their sniffing when presented with scent marks from a second conspecific of the same sex. Thus, they discriminated between the scents of individual conspecifics. This result was obtained using naturally scent-marked perches and perches carrying only chest gland scent—the latter even two weeks after the marking. When urine, the prevalent scent signal among most other galago species, was tested, it elicited little interest and discriminations were not clearly made. It is suggested that the use of more specialized scents is related to the social characteristics ofGalago crassicaudatus.     

Sex-identifying urine and molt signals in lobster (Homarus americanus)

During courtship, premolt female lobsters,Homarus americanus, choose a male and initiate a pair bond by repeated approaches to his shelter. The male allows such a female to share his shelter for about one week. This knowledge formed the basis to search for quantitative evidence for lobster sex pheromone(s) used in courtship: male cues to allow premolt females to identify a preferred male, and female cues to allow males to identify a premolt mature female. In each of four 1500-liter naturalistic aquaria, the behavioral responses of one female and two male lobsters to male and female lobster urine (0.5 ml) and body odor (20 ml) stimuli were observed. These stimuli were injected once or twice per day into a continuously flowing delivery tube attached to lobster shelters. Habituation to stimulus introduction—a serious problem in earlier experiments—was apparently avoided in the more natural social and physical environment we employed in these experiments. We demonstrated that male and female molt body odors contain different chemical substances: females responded to male molt body odor and males responded to female molt body odor but not vice versa. In general, male and female intermolt urine caused strong responses; however, females responded only weakly to male urine. This suggests that male and female urine are chemically different. Female urine and molt body odor caused a typically male high-on-legs response. These results show that molt body odors and intermolt urine contain sex-specific substances, which may be used in lobster courtship as well as other social interactions.     

Sex pheromone scent marking by females ofPectinophora gossypiella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Females of the pink bollworm moth,Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), scent marked the substrate to which they were clinging with the extended pheromone gland during nocturnal pheromonereleasing periods. Scent marks were deposited on both natural (cotton leaf) and atypical (glass) substrates. In both situations, the scent marks elicited attraction responses from conspecific males.     

Chemical signals involved in spacing behavior of breeding female bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus Schreber 1780, Microtidae,Rodentia)

In order to study the mechanism involved in the seasonal territoriality of breeding bank voles, the social behavior and scent marking of paired females were observed throughout a reproductive cycle. Initially unfamiliar females were kept in large laboratory pens provided with individual burrows. After a brief period of hostility, females behaved in a friendly manner towards each other, sharing the same nest even in the presence of a male and until the middle of pregnancy. They scarcely marked with urine. Continuous olfactory assessment appeared to play an important role in maintaining the friendly interactions. In late pregnant and lactating females, on the contrary, the odor of a familiar female triggered aggressiveness and scent marking with urine and probably with flank glands. These reactions may be interpreted as spacing behavior. Moreover, the interaction between females may inhibit reproduction in one of them. These results are discussed in relation with the available ecological data.     

The social role of scent marking in beaver (Castor Canadensis)

Beaver colonies with close neighbors constructed more scent mounds than did isolated colonies, and the number of scent mounds at each active lodge is correlated with the distance to the nearest occupied lodge. The scent mounds were typically located at trails, also on lodges and dams. The beaver rebuilt experimentally removed scent mounds. Experimentally scent-marked unoccupied lodges were less often visited or inhabited than unscented control lodges. Resident beaver responded to artificial scent marks near their lodges with aggressive behavior and increased activity. We conclude that scent mounds serve in delineating family territories and are effective in deterring transient beaver from utilizing existing but uninhabited lodges.     

Rates of urine excretion by house mouse (Mus domesticus): Differences by age,sex, social status,and reproductive condition

A series of five experiments was used to test hypotheses about factors affecting excreted urine output per day in male and female house mice (Mus domesticus). Urine was collected in metabolism cages over a 24-hr period. Male house mice excrete urine at a rate 1.5–2.0 times that of females. Daily average urine output increases with age for both sexes and for mice of the same age; urine output per day is correlated with body mass. Females in estrus produce more urine than females in diestrus. Urine output per day increases during the latter two thirds of pregnancy and remains high throughout lactation. Density does not influence urine output per day for either sex over the range of densities tested. Castration reduces urine output per day in male mice, but ovariectomy in females does not alter rates of urine production. Dominant males produce more urine than subordinate males, but there are no similar effects for female mice. The findings have potential implications for our understanding of the functional and ecological uses of urine by house mice.     

Increased scent marking in male Mongolian gerbils by urinary polypeptides of female conspecifics

Male Mongolian gerbils scent mark during a standardized openfield test on an individually different but more-or-less constant level in the absence of females. The presence of females in the same room but without direct contact to the males increases the marking frequencies of the males to an individually different higher level. A similar increase in marking frequency is obtained by application of female urine directly to the nostrils of the males, but not by male gerbil urine or female laboratory mouse urine. This indicates that substances present in female gerbil urine are responsible for the increase in male marking behavior. Using this bioassay, various fractions of female urine were tested for their influence on marking behavior. Our results to date show that the component increasing male scent-marking behavior is hydrophilic and nonvolatile and is contained in the nondialyzable, high-molecular-weight polypeptide fraction of female gerbil urine.     

Castor sacs and anal glands of the north american beaver (Castor canadensis): their histology,development, and relationship to scent communication

Both sexes of beavers possess a pair of castor sacs and a pair of anal glands located in paired subcutaneous cavities between the pelvis and the base of the tail. The castor sacs are not glandular in the histological sense, hence references to these structures as preputial glands or castor glands are misnomers. The wall of the castor sacs is plicate and comprised of three distinct zones: an outer layer of vascular connective tissue, a two-to five-cell-thick layer of mitotic epithelial cells, and several densely packed layers of cornified epithelium which grade into more widely separated sheets toward the lumen. Monocultures of a gram-positive facultatively anaerobic bacterium were present in the lumen of all castor sac preparations. Differences in the frequency of castoreum deposition were not attributable to differences in the structure of the castor sacs. The anal glands of beavers are holocrine sebaceous glands. These glands develop more rapidly than the castor sacs. Anal gland tissue from embryos exhibited cellular characteristics associated with the production of sebum. Secretory activity was evident in all preparations. The relationship of castoreum and anal gland secretion to scent communication among beavers is discussed.     

Chemical scent constituents in urine of wolf (Canis lupus) and their dependence on reproductive hormones

The volatile components of castrated male and ovariectomized female wolf urine were investigated and correlated with the administration of testosterone or estradiol and progesterone. The results indicate that testosterone induces in the castrated male the formation of some compounds typically associated with the intact male, while reducing the levels of some compounds associated with castrated male and female. The production of some of the male compounds was also induced in the ovariectomized female, although at lower levels. Changes in hormone levels during treatment of females are reflected in the composition of the urinary volatiles. Consequently, many of these compounds could be used to communicate gender as well as reproductive status.     

Urine-marking and the response to fresh vs. aged urine in wild and domestic Norway rats

Wild and domestic Norway rats (Rattus norvegiens) were compared in regard to their tendency to investigate the odors of fresh vs. aged rat urine and to urine-mark metal rods and wooden blocks placed in their home cages. Castration, sex, and domestication had no effect on the tendency to investigate sources of fresh vs. aged urine odors, but the odor of aged urine was more attractive than fresh urine for most subjects tested. The frequency of urine marking was lower for females and castrated males but generally did not differ between wild and domestic stocks. The implications of these findings for the ecology of the species are discussed.     

Putative Chemical Signals from White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus): Social and Seasonal Effects on Urinary Volatile Excretion in Males

Urine samples collected from dominant and subordinate male white-tailed deer during the breeding and nonbreeding season were analyzed by combined gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Fifty-five volatiles were found in measurable quantities. Ketones were most numerous, followed by alcohols and alkanes. Nine compounds were common to both dominants and subordinates during the breeding season. Of these nine, three were present in higher concentrations in dominants, and six were higher in subordinates. During the breeding season, nine compounds were found exclusively in the urine of dominants, whereas 19 compounds were found exclusively in the urine of subordinates. Concentrations of several compounds were dependent on the time of year (breeding vs. nonbreeding season). Differences in compound presence and concentration may produce a rank-specific odor, although we suggest that differing concentrations of these suites of compounds may be more important for the identification of social status than the presence of individual compounds. Since mature male white-tailed deer urinate on their tarsal glands frequently during the breeding season, this behavior may allow a deer to simultaneously scent-mark its environment and carry intraspecific cues indicative of social status.     

Some chemical constituents of the scent of the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)

The malodorous, volatile portion of the scent or musk of the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) containstrans-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, andtrans-2-butenyl methyl disulfide but no 1- butanethiol.This work is taken from the M.S. thesis of D.T.B., University of New Hampshire, 1974.