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1.
•  This paper shows that the role of managerial incentives is highlighted by a relatively complex relationship between technological competence and international diversification. By studying a sample of Standard & Poor’s 500 member firms, we explore the relationships between technological competence, managerial pay, and international diversification.
•  Results indicated a curvilinear relationship (an inverted U-shape) between technological competence and international diversification.
•  In line with agency theory, contingent pay (stock options and bonuses) was positively related to international diversification.
•  Beyond these direct effects, both contingent and non-contingent pay (cash compensation) moderated the relationship between technological competence and international diversification.
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2.
Abstract and Key Results
•  This conceptual paper examines the dynamics of the offshoring of information technology (IT) service work. It considers this important emerging phenomenon from multiple lenses, especially those of international business theories.
•  Research propositions are developed based on the perspectives of home country firms, host nation and the dynamic interactions between the two. Questions for future research are suggested.
•  Already established nations in the field get more opportunities than the new entrants to increase their competitiveness from experience-based knowledge gained as a result of the imitative actions of home country firms.
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3.
Abstract and Key Results
•  We explore the differences in international strategy between multinational enterprises (MNEs) in services and manufacturing, especially in terms of their international diversification, as measured by their sales and asset dispersion.
•  Our longitudinal data show that the largest MNEs in services have a much stronger home-region orientation than manufacturing MNEs. Large MNEs in the services sector average 83.9 percent of their sales in their home region, which is significantly higher than large manufacturing firms at 65.6 percent.
•  We explore the possible reasons for the relative lack of globalization of services firms. The two main reasons are: the difficulty of adapting separately upstream activities and downstream activities in high distance host environments, and the difficulty of selecting activity locations as a function of supply side criteria.
•  We offer a refinement of regional strategy theory applicable to services MNEs.
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4.
The importance of language in international knowledge transfer   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
Abstract and Key Results
•  In this article, we examine the effects of language on the transfer of knowledge within multinational companies. We unbundle language from the culture box and use the basic communication model to show how language affects all stages.
•  We also examine a range of influences — cost, transfer medium, teams, networks, trust, staff movements and motivation — on international knowledge transfer to demonstrate how language effects their operation.
•  We develop the concept of language as a “reconfiguration agent” to explain its extensive, pervasive, on-going and system-altering characteristics.
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5.
Abstract and Key Results
•  Research on the process of knowledge learning and absorption in acquisition context has emerged recently. Yet relatively less attention has been paid to the process of knowledge transfer and learning and its impact on successful acquisitions.
•  This paper adopts a process perspective’ to investigate this issue. Based on four international acquisitions in China, it generates new theoretical propositions as well as practical managerial implications.
•  Results reveal the types of knowledge acquired and how it is transferred and learnt to contribute to the success of international acquisitions. The knowledge acquisition and learning process in international context involve three stages: knowledge assessment, knowledge sharing and knowledge assimilation.
•  Foreign acquirers tend to acquire complementary knowledge from local targets, adopt dual management structure and facilitate communications with local personnel in order to achieve the success of acquisitions and future operations.
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6.
•  The role of networks and international commitment in the formation of internationalisation strategies has not yet been explored in international research. The present paper investigates these relationships in a sample of 206 Norwegian exporters.
•  This article suggests that access to networks and commitment play significant roles in the formation of internationalisation strategies. Implications for management and research are discussed.
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7.
•  Using a sample of 628 cross-border alliances established by emerging economies firms across 25 manufacturing and service industries in 64 host countries in the period 1995-2004, we investigate the effect of institutional factors on the adoption of equity alliance mode.
•  The findings of this study contribute to empirical research in institutional theory, institutional explanations of cross-border alliances and strategic behavior of emerging economies firms.
•  We find support for institutional explanations of the adoption of equity alliance mode by emerging economies firms.
•  We also find that institutional effects are contingent on the alliance location. When emerging economies firms establish alliances in developed host countries, their governance choice is most influenced by the normative pillar, followed by the cognitive pillar, with the regulatory pillar having a negligible effect. When the host countries are emerging economies, the regulatory pillar has the strongest influence followed by the cognitive pillar, with the normative pillar having an insignificant effect.
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8.
•  Employing detailed industry-level data, this paper examines the country-of-origin effects of foreign direct investment in China.
•  The analysis demonstrates that there are significant differences in behaviour between investors from non-Chinese Western (NCW) source countries and those from Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan (HMT).
•  The findings show that NCW investors target local market, while HMT investors are export-oriented. Furthermore, NCW firms are more responsive to local labour quality and technological capability than their HMT counterparts.
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9.
Abstract and Key Results
•  This paper focuses on the overall themes of the issue to examine the interrelationships between innovation, competition and regulatory change in international business.
•  It provides a synthesis by highlighting recent interlinked developments in two contrasting industries dominated by large multinationals — pharmaceuticals and automotives, with specific reference to cars.
•  This industry based assessment highlights the technical, economic and regulatory forces that have together changed the business environment, innovation processes and nature of competition in the pharmaceutical and automotive industries.
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10.
•  Analyzing the nature of competitive interaction among multinational firms in the tire industry, we find that the histories of the interactions between particular rivals matter.
•  The decision to enter a new foreign market in the era of global consolidation is related to the identities of rivals in the market, characteristics of the firm and the market, and the extent of past competitive interactions with the international pioneering firm.
•  Results suggest that, in an oligopolistic environment, aspects of multimarket competition are important to foreign direct investment decisions.
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11.
Abstract and Key Results
•  This paper introduces innovation, competition and regulatory change as dominant themes in international business.
•  These themes represent focussed trajectories for future research despite diversity in their causes, processes and consequences and the interactions between them which reflect the increasingly complex environment in which managers operate.
•  This diversity and the significant interactions between the three areas pose a challenge to scholars, with current research both shedding light on particular aspects and on the interactions between the elements in applied settings as demonstrated by the contributions to this focused issue.
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12.
•  In a broad sense, corporate governance is about how firms should be governed so that they are run effectively and efficiently. This paper takes a broad perspective on corporate governance mechanisms and considers possible synergies between corporate governance and international business (IB) research.
•  We summarize the papers included in this Focused Issue, and draw out their main contributions to the literature. In so doing, we compare and contrast the four theoretical perspectives concerning corporate governance and IB adopted in the five papers: i.e. transaction cost economics, the resource-based view, agency theory, and institutional theory.
•  Finally, we highlight five research themes (international diversification, business groups, entry modes, subsidiary mandates, and new international ownership structures) where future work explicitly addressing governance issues may prove fruitful.
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13.
Abstract and Key Results
•  We examine the impact of NAFTA on FDI into the region and the individual member countries. The literature on FDI and regional economic integration suggests that the implementation of NAFTA makes the entire area a more desirable investment location. However, insofar as individual member countries are concerned, the a priori effects are not necessarily unambiguously positive.
•  We find that the implementation of NAFTA had a generally positive effect on inward FDI into the entire region, with the benefits accruing only to the United States and Canada.
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14.
•  The paper introduces conceptual developments, empirical evidence and public policy considerations with regard to foreign direct investment and multinational enterprises in and from small countries.
•  Results emphasize the diversity of small country profiles, support the need for reconsideration of established conceptual frameworks and encourage the development of specialized policy making tools.
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15.
•  We study why multinational enterprise (MNE) subsidiaries adopt dissimilar political strategies, and seek to advance the understanding of international political strategy from an MNE parent-subsidiary perspective.
•  Drawing on the MNE parent-subsidiary literature, we contend factors at the subsidiary, corporate, and host country levels contribute to subsidiary political strategy dissimilarity. We test our hypotheses with a sample of U.S. MNE subsidiaries within Western Europe.
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16.
•  The processes of globalisation open up new potentials for MNE participation in the development of small economies. Thus the pursuit of global competitiveness by MNEs, operating through a range of strategic motivations, can be supported by different types of affiliates that can be based on the potentials of small economies.
•  Efficiency seeking operations of MNEs can benefit from cost-effective inputs of small economies (as, for example, in export processing zones) and activate their export potentials.
•  Knowledge seeking by MNEs can be generated interdependently with the creation of localised systems of innovation that support bases of sustainable development in small economies.
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17.
•  We examined perceptions differentiating key Colombian decisionmakers in 168 SMEs who decided to either internationalize or remain domestic. An integrative model compares managerial perceptions of competitive, macro-environmental and neo-institutional factors.
•  Foreign MNEs in the home market significantly differentiated decisions to internationalize, as well as the presence of internationalizing domestic competitors, anticipated product acceptance, and internationalizing suppliers.
•  The lack of findings for some institutional and macro-environmental factors may reflect important contextual features of the Colombian business environment.
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18.
Abstract and Key Results
•  This study discusses the underlying reasons for the variant nature of the relationship between multinationality and firm performance in the context of service firms.
•  To date, this line of research has mostly used evidence from manufacturing firms, despite the ever-increasing contribution of service firms to national and global economies.
•  We conduct an exploratory study using case analyses of large European retail banks. We argue that the nature of the multinationality-performance relationship for services is moderated by industry characteristics, market-based factors and firm-specific factors.
•  We conclude that the shape of the curve depicting the multinationality-performance relationship of retail banks experiences substantial variations on a single case level.
•  Our exploratory study of retail banks shows that the multinationality-performance relationship varies significantly depending on banks’ strategic decisions regarding branch network configurations, product portfolios, branding strategies, organizational architecture (HQ-subsidiary relationship), and social networks. Any generalization of the relationship is difficult and prone to error.
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19.
•  Recognizing that country-specific resources are generally difficult to imitate or diffuse across national boundaries, we propose that home country conditions are key determinants of firms’ strategic choices. By embracing insights from both institutional economics and resource-based view, we identify two country-level environmental constituents – domestic market size and legal institutions – to examine how these resources influence multinational firms’ international diversification strategies. We further propose that home country legal institutions moderate the link between geographic diversification and firm performance.
•  These hypotheses are tested with historical data on 435 multinational firms based in 13 developed economies. Results suggest that a multinational firm’s degree of international diversification has a U-shaped relationship with the size of the firm’s domestic market; firms from civil law countries are more likely to pursue international diversification than their counterparts from common law countries; and the effect of international diversification on firm performance was more pronounced among MNCs from civil law countries.
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20.
•  This paper considers the proportion of skilled labour employed by subsidiaries in small countries in the context of the strategic role of subsidiaries. Strategic role is connected to autonomy and intra-organisational relationships and the mandates given to the subsidiary. In the paper, we draw on the literature on the strategic development of multinational corporations, and insights from inward foreign direct investments in small developed countries. This is presented in a unifying framework in order to predict diverse categorizations of the impact of subsidiary role on the proportion of their employment of skilled labour.
•  The paper derives two propositions that postulate interactions between three roles containing different levels of autonomy and intra-organisational relationships in small developed countries that lead to different proportions of skilled labour in subsidiaries.
•  We predict the highest proportion of skilled labour by subsidiaries located in small developed countries in the case of world mandates when autonomous-based operations are emphasized. When there is an emphasis on intra-organizational relationships, measured by product flows and integrated international value-chain configurations, we predict the proportion of skilled labour to be highest in the cases of specialized contributors. We propose the proportion of skilled labour to be lowest in the case of local implementers.
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