镍基高温合金高速超高速磨削成屑过程的三维仿真研究

建立单颗磨粒磨削GH4169镍基高温合金的三维有限元仿真模型,研究高速、超高速磨削条件下的磨屑形貌演化过程及磨削力变化规律,观察磨削区域内的应力应变、温度等物理参量的分布和变化,分析磨削速度和单颗磨粒切厚对磨屑形貌、成屑频率及沟槽隆起特征的影响。结果表明:高速、超高速磨削镍基高温合金时,易出现锯齿形磨屑;磨削力呈周期性变化,其周期与磨屑形成过程对应;磨削过程中的温度、应变以及应变率主要集中在剪切带区域,而应力则集中在剪切带的两侧。随磨削速度增大,磨屑锯齿间间距变小,锯齿化程度增强,成屑频率呈线性增大趋势,沟痕隆起比升高。此外,单颗磨粒磨削GH4169的临界成屑切厚约为0.3 μm,当切厚为0.8 μm时有锯齿形磨屑出现,且随单颗磨粒切厚增大,锯齿化程度增强,但成屑频率降低。      

High speed versus conventional grinding in high removal rate machining of alumina and alumina–titania

High removal rate (up to 16.6 mm³/s per mm) grinding of alumina and alumina–titania was investigated with respect to material removal and basic grinding parameters using a resin-bond 160 μm grit diamond wheel at the speeds of 40 and 160 m/s, respectively. The results show that the material removal for the single-phase polycrystalline alumina and the two-phase alumina–titania composite revealed identical mechanisms of microfracture and grain dislodgement under the grinding conditioned selected. There were no distinct differences in surface roughness and morphology for both materials ground at either conventional or high speed. An increase in material removal rate did not necessarily worsen the surface roughness for the two materials at both speeds. Also the grinding forces for the two ceramics demonstrated similar characteristics at any grinding speeds and specific removal rates. Both normal and tangential grinding forces and their force ratios at the high speed were lower than those at the conventional speed, regardless of removal rates. An increase in specific removal rate caused more rapid increases in normal and tangential forces obtained at the conventional grinding speed than those at the high speed. Furthermore, it is found that the high speed grinding at all the removal rates exerted a great amount of coolant-induced normal forces in grinding zone, which were 4–6 times higher than the pure normal grinding forces.     

Critical cutting speed for onset of serrated chip flow in high speed machining

The transition of continuously smooth chip flow to periodically serrated chip flow as the cutting speed increasing is one of the most fundamental and challenging problems in high speed machining. Here, an explicit expression of the critical cutting speed for the onset of serrated chip flow, which is given in terms of material properties, uncut chip thickness and tool rake angle, is achieved based on dimensional analysis and numerical simulations. It could give reasonable predictions of the critical cutting speeds at which chips change from continuous to serrated for various metallic materials over wide ranges of uncut chip thickness and tool rake angle. More interestingly, it is found that, as the turbulent flow is controlled by the Reynolds number, the transition of the serrated chip flow mode is dominated by a Reynolds thermal number. Furthermore, the influences of material properties on the emergence of serrated chip flow are systematically investigated, the trends of which show good agreement with Recht’s classical model.     

几种因素对快速点磨削表面粗糙度的影响

分析了点磨削加工表面形貌及其精度的几种影响因素.研究发现:砂轮速度和磨削深度对表面粗糙度的影响都可归结为未变形切屑厚度的改变.减小点磨削倾斜角,可以减小未变形切屑厚度,从而得到理想的表面粗糙度.加大磨削深度和轴向进给量可提高材料去除率,但会造成粗糙度增大.这可归结为砂轮有效磨粒数的减少导致工件的表面粗糙度降低.点磨削通过改变倾斜角大小来增加参与磨削的有效磨粒数,保证高材料去除率的同时获得良好表面质量.增加光磨次数和应用倾斜型砂轮都增加了磨粒和工件表面轮廓突峰的接触次数,对于改善表面粗糙度十分有益.     

Characteristics of high speed micro-cutting of tungsten carbide

In this study, experiments are carried out to evaluate the characteristics of high speed cutting of tungsten carbide material using a Makino V55 high speed machine tool with cubic boron nitride (CBN) tool inserts. The cutting forces were measured using a three-component dynamometer, the surface roughness of the machined workpiece was measured using a Mitutoyo SURFTEST 301, and the machined workpiece surfaces and the chip formation were examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Experimental results indicate that the radial force F_x is much larger than the tangential force F_z and the axial force F_y. Two types of surfaces of the machined workpiece are achieved: ductile cutting surface and fracture surface. Continuous chips and discontinuous chips are formed under different cutting conditions. Depth of cut and feed rate almost have no significant effect on the surface roughness of the machined workpiece. The SEM observations on the machined workpiece surfaces and chip formation indicate that the ductile mode cutting is mainly determined by the undeformed chip thickness when the tool cutting edge radius is fixed. Ductile cutting can be achieved when the undeformed chip thickness is less than a critical value.     

CBN砂轮磨削镍基高温合金磨削温度实验研究

磨削高温是限制磨削技术发展的主要瓶颈之一,因而研究磨削过程中产生高温的机理及磨削温度的变化规律十分重要。采用260 mm的单层钎焊有序排布CBN砂轮,对镍基高温合金GH4169进行不同速度下的磨削实验。实验过程中,保持砂轮线速度和工件进给速度的比值不变,从而保持单颗磨粒最大未变形切屑厚度不变,发现比磨削能得到有效控制,磨削温度的上升主要由材料去除率的提高所导致;随着砂轮线速度的增加,磨削弧区热量分配关系发生显著变化,传入工件的能量增加;磨粒排布方式对传入工件的热量有影响,同一磨削工艺参数下,磨粒斜排布的砂轮磨削温度要低于磨粒直排布的砂轮,最佳磨粒排布方案还有待进一步的研究。     

Experimental and numerical investigations of single abrasive-grain cutting

The present work will provide an in-depth analysis of the abrasive-grain cutting process using a combination of experimental observations and finite element simulations. The workpiece material was AISI 4340. The cutting tool was spherical in shape with a 0.508 mm radius and was fabricated from diamond. The experiments were conducted at cutting speeds of 5−30 m/s in 5 m/s increments and depths of cut from 0.3 to 7.5 μm. The analysis provided a comprehensive understanding of the abrasive-grain cutting process related to the friction between the cutting tool and the workpiece, the material mechanics of the workpiece, and the cutting mechanics of the operation. It was found that the normal forces increased as cutting speed increased due to strain-rate hardening of the workpiece and that the tangential forces decreased as cutting speed was increased due to a reduction in tool-workpiece friction and due to a change in cutting mechanics. The scratch profiles showed that the cutting mechanics changed as cutting speed was increased due to a reduction in material pile-up height. The approximate uncut chip thicknesses for the transitions from elastic, elastoplastic, and fully plastic cutting were identified and were found to increase as cutting speed was increased.     

cBN砂轮高速磨削镍基高温合金磨削力与比磨削能研究

磨削力和比磨削能是磨削过程的两个重要参数,也是制定合理的磨削工艺需要参考的两个重要因素.采用陶瓷结合剂cBN砂轮、电镀cBN砂轮以及单层钎焊cBN砂轮[1]进行了高速磨削GH4169高温合金试验,研究了磨削力、比磨削能与单颗磨粒最大未变形切屑厚度的关系,并在此基础上建立了相应的理论公式.研究结果表明,单层钎焊cBN砂轮...     

Origin,modeling and suppression of grinding marks in ultra precision grinding of silicon wafers

A phenomenon commonly encountered in grinding of silicon wafers is the grinding marks, which are difficult to remove by subsequent polishing process, and have been a great obstacle to the manufacture of silicon wafers with higher flatness. In this paper, the grinding marks formation mechanism was clarified, a grinding marks formation model and an angular wavelength model were developed, and a grinding marks suppression method was proposed. A series of grinding experiments were carried out to verify the developed models and investigate the effect of the wafer rotational speed, the wheel rotational speed, the infeed rate, the axial run out of the cup wheel and the spark out time. The results show that: (1) grinding marks are waviness generated on silicon wafers caused by non-uniform material removal circumferentially due to the axial run out of the cup wheel; (2) grinding marks present multiple angular wavelengths characteristics; (3) the angular wavelength of grinding marks is a one-variable function of the rotational speed ratio of the wheel to the wafer; and (4) grinding marks could be suppressed significantly by properly selecting the rotational speed ratio.     

Grinding characteristics in high speed grinding of engineering ceramics with brazed diamond wheels

An investigation was undertaken to explore the grinding characteristics and removal mechanisms in high speed grinding of three engineering ceramics—alumina, silicon nitride, and zirconia—by using brazed diamond wheels of two different grit sizes. The grinding forces and surface roughness were measured and the morphological features of ground workpiece surfaces were examined. The results indicate that material removal mechanisms are different for the three ceramics at high grinding speeds. For alumina, the removal is dominated by brittle fracture. For silicon nitride and zirconia, the ductile removal prevails in the grinding. For each of the three ceramics, grinding power per unit width is found to be nearly proportional to the rate of plowed surface area generated per unit time per unit width, indicating that the grinding energy expended is mainly associated with sliding and plowing.     

Study on the grinding of P/M high speed steel ASP60

Several studies involved in grinding the P/M high speed steel ASP60 were carried out. The influence of the grinding mode under different grinding conditions was investigated. The grinding process was described and identified by using grinding parameters such as dimensionless maximum grain depth of cut h_g, arc of contact l_c, equivalent chip thickness h_eq. The optimum grinding parameters for ASP60 are suggested.     

Modeling and experimental study of grinding forces in surface grinding

Grinding forces are composed of chip formation force and sliding force. A new mathematical model of grinding forces in surface grinding is developed in this paper. Effectiveness of this model is proved by comparison of the experimental results and the model calculation results. Chip formation energy can be divided into static chip formation energy and dynamic chip formation energy which is mainly influenced by shear strain, shear strain rate and heat in the metal removal process. A formula for calculating the chip formation force is proposed by analyzing the relationship between specific chip formation energy and chip formation force. Combined with the achievements of other researchers, a new formula for calculating sliding force considering the influence of processing parameters on friction coefficient is obtained.     

Numerical and experimental studies on the grinding of cemented carbide with textured monolayer diamond wheels

Textured grinding wheels could provide more excellent grinding performances than conventional grinding wheels, which have been experimentally confirmed. However, for lack of in-depth understandings of the grains-workpiece micro contact and interactions, experimental methods can only obtain the macro grinding performances, and the key issues on textured grinding wheels cannot be experimentally explained. In this paper, the combination method of numerical analysis and experiment is proposed. The experiments are conducted to evaluate the machining performances of grinding wheels from a macro level. Meanwhile, numerical methods are used to analyze the distribution characteristics of undeformed chip thickness in micro cutting process. The effects of material removal rate, texture dimension (TD) and radial dressing of grinding wheels on the distribution characteristics of undeformed chip thickness are revealed. The strong correlations between the macro grinding performances and the distribution characteristics of undeformed chip thickness are proved, and what kind of distribution characteristics are beneficial to good grinding results can be discerned, which provides a theoretical basis for tool optimization. Then, optimization strategy and steps of grinding performances are proposed. A conventional grinding wheel with same geometric parameters and grain size is used as reference grinding wheel, and the distribution of undeformed chip thickness generated in stable wear stage by the reference grinding wheel is taken as optimization starting point. After optimization, a desired distribution of undeformed chip thickness can be obtained. Finally, grinding experiments are conducted to confirm the optimization effects. In this way, using the distribution characteristics of undeformed chip thickness as a pointer, the deeper understanding of key issues on textured grinding wheel will be reached.     

大尺寸硅片自旋转磨削的试验研究

利用基于自旋转磨削原理的硅片超精密磨床,通过试验研究了砂轮粒度、砂轮转速、工件转速及砂轮进给速度等主要因素对材料去除率、砂轮主轴电机电流以及磨削后硅片表面粗糙度的影响关系。研究结果表明,增大砂轮轴向进给速度和减小工件转速,采用粗粒度砂轮有利于提高磨削硅片的材料去除率,砂轮轴向进给速度对材料去除率的影响最为显著;适当增大砂轮转速,减小砂轮轴向进给速度,采用细粒度砂轮可以减小磨削表面粗糙度;在其它条件一定的情况下,砂轮速度超过一定值会导致材料去除率减小,主轴电机电流急剧增大,表面粗糙度变差;采用比#2000粒度更细的砂轮磨削时,材料去除率减小,硅片表面粗糙度没有明显改善。     

金刚石砂轮磨削钛合金时的磨削力研究

为解决金刚石砂轮磨削钛合金时材料弹性模量低、弹性形变大等问题,从理论上对砂轮的受力状态进行分析。基于切屑分离准则和材料摩擦属性,构建钛合金磨削时的受力模型,并对单颗磨粒的受力状态进行有限元仿真。设计钛合金磨削加工试验,研究工艺参数变化对砂轮磨削力的影响规律。结果表明：砂轮磨削速度增加,磨削力逐渐降低;当进给速度和磨削深度增加时,磨削力增加。当磨削工艺参数改变时,砂轮的切向和法向磨削力的变化趋势大致相同,切向和法向磨削力的比值为0.29～0.37。且磨削力的理论值和试验值的变化趋势基本一致,二者相对误差的平均值在5%以内,验证了磨削力理论模型的正确性。     

磨削速度和压力对单晶硅去除特性的影响

为研究单晶硅磨削损伤,使用金刚石磨块在不同磨削速度和压力下对单晶硅表面进行高速划擦试验,金刚石的粒度尺寸为38~45 μm。通过测量硅片表面粗糙度、亚表面损伤深度和材料去除率,研究磨块的磨削速度和压力对材料去除特性的影响规律。结果表明:相同压力时,材料去除率随磨削速度增加呈先增大后减小的趋势,亚表面损伤深度逐渐变小;随法向压力增大,亚表面损伤深度变化不明显;在5N压力下,表面粗糙度值R_a变化明显,由6.4 μm减小到3.2 μm;而10 N压力下,R_a无明显变化。      

航空铝合金7075-T651高速铣削锯齿形切屑的形成机理研究

目的分析航空铝合金高速铣削锯齿形切屑的形成过程及机理,为提高工件表面质量、延长刀具使用寿命提供理论依据。方法考虑航空铝合金在高速铣削过程中铣削厚度变化的特点,选用合理的本构模型及材料断裂准则,将三维铣削简化为二维变厚度的正交切削热力耦合有限元模型,对锯齿形切屑的形成过程进行有限元模拟,并经铣削试验验证有限元模型的准确性。结果在2～16 m/s的切削速度范围内,铣削力、切削温度、锯齿形切屑形貌均得到了准确的仿真。随着切削速度的增加,切屑厚度、切屑连续部分高度和剪切带间距都有减小的趋势,相反,剪切角随切削速度的增加而增大。切削速度为16m/s时,锯齿形切屑在切屑厚度较大的一侧出现,并随着切屑厚度减小而逐渐消失,变为均匀带状切屑,准确仿真了切削厚度变化下锯齿形切屑形貌。结论提出考虑剪切带宽度变化的三阶段锯齿形切屑形成模型,通过剪切带内外的应变、应变率和温度的变化分析了绝热剪切过程,并使用分割强度比参数量化锯齿形切屑应变程度,控制锯齿形切屑形态。     

On the study of creep feed grinding of alumina

Several issues involved in creep feed grinding of alumina with diamond wheels were studied. Influences of variables on responses were investigated. Off-line optimization was performed by formulating the grinding process as a multi-objective nonlinear mixed integer problem. The dominant mechanism of material removal was determined. The grinding process was simulated to obtain the number of active cutting edges and the grinding parameters such as cutting length, maximum undeformed chip thickness, etc. Unit load distribution was characterized and then used to estimate the percentage of cutting edges that fracture or plastically cut the material and to derive the probability distribution function for substance cracks. Fractal concept was applied to characterize wheel profiles. Findings from these studies are reported in this paper. These studies are definitely not complete, but surely shed some light on the creep feed grinding process of ceramic materials.     

Ultraprecision cutting of photoresist/gold composite microstructures

Ultraprecision cutting tests were performed on a photoresist/gold bump composite and cutting characteristics were investigated by examining the surface topography, chip formation, cutting force, and temperature. The cutting mechanisms depended significantly on the cutting speed, undeformed chip thickness, and tool geometry. At a high cutting speed, photoresist softening occurred, leading to chip adhesion on tool faces and burr formation on gold bumps. Two kinds of microfractures were identified in the photoresist cutting, and critical cutting conditions for each were obtained. The findings in this study provide process criteria for ultraprecise planarization of LSI substrates for three-dimensional chip implementing technology.     

因瓦合金纳米抛光材料去除机理的分子动力学模拟∗

因瓦合金作为一种独特的低膨胀材料已广泛用于航空航天等高科技领域,但目前还鲜有对其超精密加工理论和技术的研究,而纳米抛光是因瓦合金超精密加工的一种重要手段。 针对纳米抛光过程中因瓦合金的材料去除机理,基于分子动力学模拟研究抛光速度对材料去除效率、亚表面损伤和抛光表面平整度的影响。 通过对磨屑、能量、抛光力、位错运动等方面的分析揭示因瓦合金的变形损伤机制。 研究结果表明:材料去除效率随着抛光速度将达到一个临界值,当抛光速度低于 100 m/ s 时,磨削热促使位错形核,亚表面损伤厚度增加;当抛光速度高于 100 m/ s 时,应变速率急剧增大导致位错运动受限,使得亚表面损伤厚度得以降低。 为实现因瓦合金高效率和低损伤加工机制提供理论依据和技术支持。