Production of trans‐free margarine stock by enzymatic interesterification of rice bran oil,palm stearin and coconut oil

BACKGROUND: Trans‐free interesterified fat was produced for possible usage as a spreadable margarine stock. Rice bran oil, palm stearin and coconut oil were used as substrates for lipase‐catalyzed reaction. RESULTS: After interesterification, 137–150 g kg^?1 medium‐chain fatty acid was incorporated into the triacylglycerol (TAG) of the interesterified fats. Solid fat contents at 25 °C were 15.5–34.2%, and slip melting point ranged from 27.5 to 34.3 °C. POP and PPP (β‐tending TAG) in palm stearin decreased after interesterification. X‐ray diffraction analysis demonstrated that the interesterified fats contained mostly β′ polymorphic forms, which is a desirable property for margarines. CONCLUSIONS: The interesterified fats showed desirable physical properties and suitable crystal form (β′ polymorph) for possible use as a spreadable margarine stock. Therefore, our result suggested that the interesterified fat without trans fatty acid could be used as an alternative to partially hydrogenated fat. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Chemical interesterification of milkfat and milkfat-corn oil blends

Blending and chemical interesterification of fats have been used to modify physical and chemical properties of natural fats. The objective of this study was to produce binary mixtures of butterfat and corn oil that serve as a base for a tablespread, keeping the desirable organoleptic qualities of butter, yet with higher contents of ω-6 fatty acids. Chemical interesterification was performed to improve butter’s physical properties, such as better spreadability. Liquefied butterfat and corn oil were mixed in different proportions and then chemically interesterified. Butterfat consisted of 66.5% saturated fatty acids, with palmitic acid being predominant. Corn oil had more than 50% of linoleic acid in its composition. Interesterification significantly reduced trisaturated and triunsaturated triacylglycerol contents and increased softening points in all blends. The negative coefficients of the blends from multiple regression of the solid fat content revealed a monotectic interaction between butterfat and corn oil in temperatures ranging from 10 to 35 °C, before and after interesterification.     

Thermal and crystal characteristics of enzymatically interesterified fats of fatty acid-balanced oil and fully hydrogenated soybean oil in supercritical CO2 system

Blends of fatty acid-balanced oil that was prepared by the aqueous enzymatic extraction, and with fully hydrogenated soybean oil in different weight ratios from 30:70 to 80:20 (wt%) were interesterified using Lipozyme RM IM in a supercritical CO₂ system. The optimal immobilized enzyme dosage, pressure, substrate ratio, temperature, and time were 6% (w/w) of initial substrates, 8 MPa, blend ratio with 60:40 (wt%) of fatty acid-balanced oil and fully hydrogenated soybean oil, a temperature of 70°C, and reaction time of 2 h, respectively. It was observed that at the optimal conditions, under supercritical CO₂ conditions, the reaction time of the interesterification was shorter than that of conventional enzymatic interesterification. The slip melting point, solid fat content, fatty acid composition, differential scanning calorimetry, polymorphic form and crystal morphology of the enzymatically interesterified fats were evaluated. The results indicated that the interesterified fats showed desirable physical properties with lower slip melting point and solid fat content, suitable crystal form (β′ polymorph), and without trans-fatty acid for possible use as a shortening and margarine stock.     

An investigation on the physicochemical characterization of interesterified blends of fully hydrogenated palm olein and soybean oil

In this study, the effect of interesterification (using sodium methoxide) on physicochemical characteristics of fully hydrogenated palm olein (FHPO)/soybean oil blends (10 ratios) was investigated. Interesterification changed free fatty acid content, decreased oil stability index, solid fat content (SFC) and slip melting point (SMP), and does not affected the peroxide value. With the increase of FHPO ratio, oil stability index, SFC and SMP increased in both the interesterified and non-interesterified blends. Fats with higher FHPO ratio had narrower plastic range, as well. Compared to the initial blends, interesterified fats had wider plastic ranges at lower temperatures. Both the non-interesterified and interesterified blends showed monotectic behavior. The Gompertz function could describe SFC curve (as a function of temperature, saturated fatty acid (SFA) content or both) and SMP (as a function of SFA) of the interesterified fats with high R² and low mean absolute error.     

Effects of α-tocopherol and citric acid on the oxidative stability of alimentary poultry fats during storage at low temperatures

The purpose of this study was to investigate the stability of three alimentary poultry fats (goose, duck, and chicken) by natural antioxidants (α-tocopherol and citric acid). This was targeted to extend their shelf life, and to monitor the quality parameters during refrigerated (+4°C) and frozen storage (–20°C). The addition of natural antioxidants in a proportion of 0.1% has extended the shelf life of goose fat stored at +4°C by 90 days; for goose fat stored at –20°C citric acid has prolonged the shelf life by 150 days, while goose fat with α-tocopherol could be stored for more than 480?days at –20°C without spoilage. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids content decreased significantly (p < 0.05) after 480 days of chilled storage for fat samples with α-tocopherol. The natural antioxidants provided good protection against oxidation of poultry fats, and these can be used to monitor the oxidation of fats and to predict their shelf life stability.     

Effects of chemical interesterification on physicochemical properties of blends of palm stearin and palm olein

Chemical interesterification is an important technological option for the production of fats targeting commercial applications. Fat blends, formulated by binary blends of palm stearin and palm olein in different ratios, were subjected to chemical interesterification. The following determinations, before and after the interesterification reactions, were done: fatty acid composition, softening point, melting point, solid fat content and consistency. For the analytical responses a multiple regression statistical model was applied. This study has shown that blending and chemical interesterifications are an effective way to modify the physical and chemical properties of palm stearin, palm olein and their blends. The mixture and chemical interesterification allowed obtaining fats with various degrees of plasticity, increasing the possibilities for the commercial use of palm stearin and palm olein.     

Effects of interesterification and fatty acid supplementation on the digestibility of tallow in milk replacers for calves

The effects of interesterification and fatty acid supplementation on the nutritive value of homogenised fats in milk replacers for calves were studied in two digestibility experiments, each of a 6 × 6 latin square design. Using a level of 20% added fat, the mean apparent digestibilities of the total dietary lipids were: butterfat, 96.5%; interesterified butterfat, 95.5%; tallow, 88.7%; interesterified tallow, 93.1%; tallow supplemented with trimyristin and triolein by interesterification, 92.3%; tallow supplemented with trimyristin and triolein by simple admixture, 89.9%. The high digestibility of butterfat is not dependent apparently on any specific non-random distribution of its constituent fatty acids. The digestibility of the tallow was lower and interesterification just failed to give a significant improvement. The inclusion of additional myristic and oleic acids had no significant effect. Using a level of 15% added fat, the mean apparent digestibilities of the total dietary lipids were: tallow, 79.7%; interesterified tallow, 89.2%; interesterified, reduced stearic acid, tallow 87.9%; interesterified, reduced stearic acid, added butyric acid, tallow, 96.3%; interesterified, added butyric acid, tallow 94.7%; tallow admixed with tributyrin, 84.0%. The inclusion in tallow of butyric acid by a process involving interesterification resulted in substantial increases in digestibility to values similar to those obtained for butterfat and interesterified butterfat in the first experiment. The improvement was not achieved by simple admixture of tributyrin with tallow. Reduction of the stearic acid content in tallow to a level similar to that in butterfat had no significant effect on fat digestibility. The lower digestibility of tallow than of butterfat was due mainly to lower digestibility of palmitic and stearic acids and a higher percentage of the latter acid in tallow. Modifications which effected an improvement in the digestibility of tallow generally did so by improving the digestibility of these acids.     

Instrumental Methods for the Evaluation of Interesterified Fats

Chemical interesterification is currently the main alternative for the production of plastic fats containing no trans fatty acids. However, directing the industrial application of an interesterified fat requires a complete understanding of its physicochemical, functional and technological properties, and also of its stability during and after processing. The objective of the present article was to carry out an ample review of the experimental methodologies applied to the study of interesterified fats. The methodologies considered include techniques employed in the investigation of the triacylglycerol composition, solid fat content, crystallization kinetics, thermal behavior, polymorphism, microstructure, and consistency. The methodologies considered include some official methods currently in use and new techniques recently developed and employed. Sample preparation methods, interpretation of the results and the results recently published in the literature in question are also detailed and discussed.     

Amelioration of nutritional properties of bakery fat using omega-3 fatty acid-rich edible oils: a review

Bakery products have gained prominence in modern diets due to their convenience and accessibility, often serving as staple meals across diverse regions. However, the fats used in these products are rich in saturated fatty acids and often comprise trans fatty acids, which are considered as a major biomarker for non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular disorders, obesity and diabetes. Additionally, these fats lack the essential omega-3 fatty acids, which are widely known for their therapeutic benefits. They play a major role in lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. Thus, there is need for incorporating these essential fatty acids into bakery fats. Nevertheless, fortifying food products with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) poses several challenges due to their high susceptibility to oxidation. This oxidative deterioration leads to not only the formation of undesirable flavors, but also a loss of nutritional value in the final products. This review focuses on the development of healthier trans-fat-free bakery fat enriched with omega-3 fatty acids and its effect on the physicochemical, functional, sensory and nutritional properties of bakery fats and products. Further, the role of various technologies like physical blending, enzymatic interesterification and encapsulation to improve the stability of PUFA-rich bakery fat is discussed, where microencapsulation emerged as a novel and effective technology to enhance the stability and shelf life. By preventing deteriorative changes, microencapsulation ensures that the nutritional, physicochemical and sensory properties of food products remain intact. Novel modification methods like interesterification and microencapsulation used for developing PUFA-rich bakery fats have a potential to address the health risks occurring due to consumption of bakery fat having higher amount of saturated and trans fatty acids. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.     

Effect of level of oil inclusion in the diet of dairy cows at pasture on animal performance and milk composition and properties

The effect of including additional oil, incorporated as whole rapeseeds, in the diet of 64 Holstein–Friesian dairy cows (32 mid‐ and 32 late‐lactation) at pasture on animal performance and milk fat composition and properties was followed over a continuous trial of 20 weeks duration. Within two stages of lactation (mid, 130 ± 16.2 days, or late, 231 ± 58.9 days), cows were allocated to concentrate treatments representing four levels of rapeseed oil inclusion, 0 (control), 200, 400 and 600 g oil day^?1. Oil inclusion had little effect on milk yield but decreased milk fat content significantly (P < 0.01), with a mean depression of 0.40% at the highest level of oil inclusion. The content of milk protein also decreased with increasing addition of oil, but the decrease was smaller than the milk fat depression and was not statistically significant. Increasing the level of rapeseed oil in the diet to 600 g oil day^?1 resulted in linear changes in milk fat and protein concentrations which were described by regression equations. For each 100 g of rapeseed oil added to the diet, milk fat content decreased by 0.068% in mid‐lactation cows and 0.061% in late‐lactation cows, while protein content decreased by 0.026% in mid‐lactation cows and 0.028% in late‐lactation cows. Total unsaturated fatty acid content of milk fat also increased in a linear fashion with increased level of oil addition, from 345.7 g kg^?1 total fatty acids in control milk fat to 459.3 g kg^?1 total fatty acids at 600 g oil day^?1, while total saturated fatty acids decreased in the same milk fats from 640.7 to 522.2 g kg^?1 total fatty acids. These changes were reflected in lower solid fat contents (SFC) in the milk fat at the lower temperatures of measurement, eg 41% SFC at 5 °C at the highest level of oil inclusion compared with 52% in the control milk fat. However, SFC at 20 °C showed little difference with increasing level of dietary oil addition, an important factor in maintaining product integrity at room temperatures. The relatively high content of the monounsaturated fatty acid C18:1 (345.5 g kg^?1 total fatty acids at 600 g oil day^?1) and low content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (total C18:2 and C18:3 <40 g kg^?1 total fatty acids at 600 g oil day^?1) ensured that the oxidative stability of the treatment and control milk fats did not differ significantly. Stage of lactation had an unexplained effect of consistent magnitude on milk fat composition throughout the trial period, with late‐lactation animals producing milk fats containing a significantly (P < 0.001) higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids than the mid‐lactation animals. Changes in the proportions of unsaturated fatty acids in milk fat, as reflected by changes in iodine value, were established within 2 weeks of the trial commencing and persisted over the 20 weeks of the trial duration. No adverse effect on animal health from this type of dietary manipulation was identified. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Structured lipids obtained by chemical interesterification of olive oil and palm stearin

Interesterification of palm stearin (PS) with liquid vegetable oils could yield a good solid fat stock that may impart desirable physical properties, because PS is a useful source of vegetable hard fat, providing β′ stable solid fats. Dietary ingestion of olive oil (OO) has been reported to have physiological benefits such as lowering serum cholesterol levels. Fat blends, formulated by binary blends of palm stearin and olive oil in different ratios, were subjected to chemical interesterification with sodium methoxide. The original and interesterified blends were examined for fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition, melting point, solid fat content (SFC) and consistency. Interesterification caused rearrangement of triacylglycerol species, reduction of trisaturated and triunsaturated triacylglycerols content and increase in diunsaturated-monosaturated triacylglycerols of all blends, resulting in lowering of melting point and solid fat content. The incorporation of OO to PS reduced consistency, producing more plastic blends. The mixture and chemical interesterification allowed obtaining fats with various degrees of plasticity, increasing the possibilities for the commercial use of palm stearin and olive oil.     

Edible lipids modification processes: A review

Lipid is the general name given to fats and oils, which are the basic components of cooking oils, shortening, ghee, margarine, and other edible fats. The chosen term depends on the physical state at ambient temperature; fats are solids and oils are liquids. The chemical properties of the lipids, including degree of saturation, fatty acid chain length, and acylglycerol molecule composition are the basic determinants of physical characteristics such as melting point, cloud point, solid fat content, and thermal behavior. This review will discuss the major lipid modification strategies, hydrogenation, and chemical and enzymatic interesterification, describing the catalysts used mechanisms, kinetics, and impacts on the health-related properties of the final products. Enzymatic interesterification will be emphasized as method that produces a final product with good taste, zero trans fatty acids, and a low number of calories, requires less contact with chemicals, and is cost efficient.     

A survey of lipid composition of Khoa samples in relation to possible adulteration

The fatty acid composition of Khoa a heat‐desiccated milk product was determined and compared with those obtained with cow milk, buffalo milk and toned milk. Fatty acid methyl esters were analysed by capillary gas chromatography (GC). Among the Khoa samples analysed, 57% showed fatty acid composition characteristic of milk fat. The ratio of major saturated fatty acids to unsaturated fatty acids (S/U) including 18:1 transfatty acids was calculated for all the fats. The GC profiles of 43% Khoa samples showed the composition of fatty acids not conforming to milk fats. The Khoa samples adulterated with nonmilk fats were further confirmed by cholesterol and triglyceride estimation.     

Properties of Low-Fat Frankfurters Containing Monounsaturated and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Oils

Properties of low-fat (<18%) frankfurters containing high-oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSO) and fish oil were studied. Replacement of animal fats by the oils had little effect on emulsion stability. Frankfurters with 5% fish oil had very low sensory scores due to undesirable fish flavor. Incorporation of maximum amounts of HOSO into low-fat beef/pork and all-beef frankfurters increased oleic acid by 34% and 62%, respectively, and the monounsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio by 178% and 468%, respectively, compared to a regular (30% fat) product containing only animal fats. Sensory evaluation and instrumental texture profile analysis showed that the reduction in total fat caused texture problems, especially increased firmness and springiness and decreased juiciness.     

The interesterification-induced changes in olive and palm oil blends

Refined olive oil and partially hydrogenated palm oil (PHPO) blends of varying proportions were subjected to both chemical and enzymatic interesterifications. The rearranged fats were investigated for their melting points, solid fat contents at selected temperatures, fatty acid compositions and trans isomer contents, as well as evaluations, by an expert sensory panel, of their spreadibility and appearance characteristics. The analytical results were compared with those of commercial Turkish margarines. The 30:70 olive oil-PHPO blend after enzymatic interesterification was found to have properties very similar to those of Turkish package margarines, with the additional advantage of possessing higher amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids.     

Rheological and crystalline properties of trans-free model fat blends as affected by the length of fatty acid chains

Three structured fats were prepared by the total catalytic hydrogenation and random chemical transesterification using medium (coconut oil) and long (palmstearine, low and high erucic rapeseed oil) chain saturated fatty acids triglycerides. All three structured fats crystallized in β′ modification and had the same solid fat content profile. Hardness was dependent on the type of long chain fatty acid (palmitic, stearic and behenic) in structured fat. Molar ratio of medium:long chain fatty acids was 2:1. Model fat blends prepared on the base of these structured fats had the same solid fat content profile (at constant content of structured fat). Yield stress of the fat blends was dependent on the content and mainly on the composition of structured fat. None of the model fat blends crystallized in β modification. The substitution of the stearic–palmitic by stearic or by stearic–behenic acids in the structured fats appears possible.     

Oxidative stabilities of mango kernel fat fractions produced by three-stage fractionation

Trans-free mango kernel fat stearins and oleins were produced by three-stage acetone fractionation to achieve the sufficient utilization of fat. Fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions, slip melting points, iodine values, micronutrient (tocopherol, sterol, and squalene) levels, as well as oxidative stability indexes of the fractions were analyzed to evaluate their qualities. The most abundant fatty acids in the stearins were saturated fatty acids (57.3–65.1%, mainly including palmitic, stearic, and arachidic acids), and the major triacylglycerols were symmetrical monounsaturated types (78.3–93.7%). The unique properties make the stearins show highest slip melting points 34.7–38.3°C and oxidative stability indexes (12.0–14.2 h), and very suitable for the manufacturing of hard chocolate fats. The oleins contained high percentages of monounsaturated (48.3–53.7%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (7.8–8.5%). Their oxidative stability indexes (6.3–6.7 h) were lower than the stearins but higher than common commercial oils. About 85.2% of tocopherol, 99.2% of sterol, and 79.2% of squalene were transferred to the liquids after fractionation, which could improve their antioxidant abilities. Further multiple linear regression analyses between oxidative stability indexes and fat compositions revealed that polyunsaturated fatty acid and sterol were the main factors that affect the oxidative stabilities of the fractions. The results suggested that the moderated refining techniques should be developed to retain more sterol to improve the oxidative stabilities and nutritive values of the fats.     

Effect of Age, Sex and Strain on the Fatty Acid Composition of Goose Muscle and Depot Fats

The fatty acid composition of muscle and depot fats from four strains of geese was determined by GLC analysis. Differences due to sex and age of goose were not significant (P < 0.01). The major fatty acids of depot fat were oleic (54%), palmitic (22%), linoleic (11%) and stearic (8%). Muscle contained from 4.7–9.6% fat composed mainly of oleic (42%), palmitic (25%), linoleic (14%) and stearic (12%) acids. The muscle fat content of Pilgrim and Hungarian geese was less than that of the Crossbred (P < 0.01) and of the Chinese strain.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trans</Emphasis>-free margarine fat produced using enzymatic interesterification of rice bran oil and hard palm stearin

Trans-free interesterified fats were prepared from blends of hard palm stearin (hPS) and rice bran oil (RBO) at 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, and 80:20 weight % using immobilized Mucor miehei lipase at 60°C for 6 h with a mixing speed of 300 rpm. Physical properties and crystallization and melting behaviors of interesterified blends were investigated and compared with commercial margarine fats. Lipase-catalyzed interesterification modified triacylglycerol compositions and physical and thermal properties of hPS:RBO blends. Slip melting point and solid fat contents (SFC) of all blends decreased after interesterification. Small, mostly β′ form, needle-shaped crystals, desirable for margarines were observed in interesterified fats. Interesterified blend 40:60 exhibited an SFC profile and crystallization and melting characteristics most similar to commercial margarine fats and also had small needle-like β′ crystals. Interesterified blend 40:60 was suitable for use as a transfree margarine fat.     

Evaluation of Fatty Acid Profile of Wagyu Beef by ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy

Japanese black Wagyu beef has its characteristics of fatty well-marbled texture, flavor, and tenderness which are affected by fatty acid composition. The aim of this study was to develop an analytical method for evaluating the fatty acid profile of Wagyu beef by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In the current study, attenuated total reflection–FTIR (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography (GC) were applied to the fat tissues, and the solvent-extracted fats which were sampled from subcutaneous, inter- and intramuscular fat tissues. Results of GC analysis showed that monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) content became larger in the order of intramuscular, intermuscular, and subcutaneous fats, and saturated fatty acids (SFA) became smaller in the same order. Subcutaneous fat could be discriminated from inter- and intramuscular fats on the basis of fatty acid composition by principal component analysis. The ATR-FTIR analysis revealed that the shift of the peak positions of alkene C–H stretching vibration at around 3,006 cm⁻¹ occurred depending on the unsaturation degree of fatty acids in beef fat. Partial least squares (PLS) regression analysis with leave-one-out cross-validation was applied to the combined regions of 2,800–3,050 and 1,000–1,500 cm⁻¹ for the fat tissues and the extracted fats. The correlation coefficients of the PLS validation models predicting the content of the MUFA and SFA for solvent-extracted fats were higher than those for fat tissues, and the coefficients (R ²) of determination more than 0.873 were obtained for solvent-extracted fats and 0.522 for fat tissues.