Technical Requirements for Lunar Structures

The moon has recently regained the interest of many of the world’s space agencies. Lunar missions are the first steps in expanding manned and unmanned exploration inside our solar system. The moon represents various options; it can be used as a laboratory in low gravity, it is the closest and most accessible planetary object from the Earth, and it possesses many resources that humans could potentially exploit. This paper has two objectives: to review the current status of the knowledge of lunar environmental requirements for future lunar structures, and to attempt to classify different future lunar structures based on the current knowledge of the subject. The paper divides lunar development into three phases. The first phase is building shelters for equipment only; in the second phase, small temporary habitats will be built, and finally in the third phase, habitable lunar bases will be built with observatories, laboratories, or production plants. Initially, the main aspects of the lunar environment that will cause concerns will be lunar dust and meteoroids, and later will include effects due to the vacuum environment, lunar gravity, radiation, a rapid change of temperature, and the length of the lunar day. This paper presents a classification of technical requirements based on the current knowledge of these factors, and their importance in each of the phases of construction. It gives recommendations for future research in relation to the development of conceptual plans for lunar structures, and for the evolution of a lunar construction code to direct these structural designs. Some examples are presented along with the current status of the bibliography of the subject.     

Experimental Studies on Mechanics of Lunar Excavation

One of the first construction operations for building a stationary habitat on the moon or Mars will be excavation of soil. The reasons for this necessity are manyfold and range from the need to protect inflatable habitats against radiation to creating an underground space for building electrical power plants. Despite the tremendous amount of earth movement that has taken place on this globe, a sound theoretical basis for designing soil‐moving machines does not exist. This paper describes the results of experiments that were developed to evaluate empirically if and how soil could be excavated on the moon. No attempt has bee made to optimize or promote a particular method. The goal of the present study is rather to establish a sound knowledge base to use for the more‐detailed studies needed to design an operational system that will be successful on the moon.     

MALEO: Modular Assembly in Low Earth Orbit: Alternate Strategy for Lunar Base Development

Modular assembly in low Earth orbit (MALEO) is a new strategy for building an initial operational‐capability lunar habitation base, the main purpose of which is to safely initiate and sustain early lunar base buildup operations. In this strategy the lunar base components are brought up to low Earth orbit (LEO) by the Space Transportation System (STS), and assembled there to form the complete lunar base. Specially designed propulsion systems are then used to transport the MALEO lunar base, complete and intact, all the way to the moon. Upon touchdown on the lunar surface, the MALEO lunar habitation base is operational. The strategy is unlike conventional concepts, which have suggested that the components of the lunar base be launched separately from the Earth and landed one at a time on the moon, where they are assembled by robots and astronauts in extravehicular activity (EVA). The architectural drivers for the MALEO concept are, first, the need to provide an assured safe haven and comfortable working environment for the astronaut crew as safely and as quickly as possible, with the minimum initially risky EVA, and secondly, the maximum exploitation of the evolutionary benefits derived from the assembly and operation of space station Freedom (SSF‐1). Commonality and inheritability from the space station assembly experience is expected to have an advantageous impact on both the space station program as well as the MALEO lunar base.     

Conceptual Design of Submarine to Explore Europa’s Oceans

A conceptual design of an unmanned robot submarine is presented to explore one of the moons of the planet Jupiter, namely, Europa. This moon is a little smaller than our Earth’s moon but contains a lot of water; in fact the oceans on Europa are some 96?km deep and contain about 5 times the amount of water that our Earth’s oceans contain. Thus, it is likely that large sea animals may exist on Europa supported by hydrothermal vents and these animals will prove of interest to scientists. To satisfy these scientific interests, it is the writer’s belief that a robot submarine will be landing on Europa within the next 20?years. This paper discusses some of the problems that will be encountered in the design, construction, and operation of this robot submarine. For example, even though the internal diameter of the submarine may only be 1?m, it will not be possible to build the submarine from a metal; as such a structure will have no reserve buoyancy and will sink like a stone to the bottom of the ocean. Even vessels built in glass fiber reinforced plastic and carbon fiber reinforced plastic have only fractional positive buoyancy. This paper shows that for the vessel to have adequate reserve buoyancy, it will be necessary to build the submarine hull in a metal matrix or ceramic composite. This paper discusses different methods of providing power, but favors a fuel cell for this purpose. This paper also discusses the hostile environment that the submarine is likely to encounter on this moon.     

Processing of Lunar Materials

A variety of products made from lunar resources will be required for a lunar outpost. These products might be made by adapting existing processing techniques to the lunar environment, or by developing new techniques unique to the moon. In either case, processing techniques used on the moon will have to have a firm basis in basic principles of materials science and engineering, which can be used to understand the relationships between composition, processing, and properties of lunar‐derived materials. These principles can also be used to optimize the properties of a product, once a more detailed knowledge of the lunar regolith is obtained. Using three types of ceramics (monolithic glasses, glass fibers, and glass‐ceramics) produced from lunar simulants, we show that the application of materials science and engineering principles is useful in understanding and optimizing the mechanical properties of ceramics on the moon. We also demonstrate that changes in composition and/or processing can have a significant effect on the strength of these materials.     

Considerations for Design Criteria for Lunar Structures

The development of design criteria for lunar structures must begin soon in order to establish adequate criteria. Some of the items that need consideration in such criteria are discussed. The categorization of the structures will provide designers with information on the purpose and level of complexity of the structure. Various construction materials and structure types that will be critical for the design of lunar structures, are considered. The environment of the moon and its possible effects on structures are presented and lead to the development of a few load cases that need to be considered in design. A probabilistic format for the criteria and design lifetimes are also discussed.     

The space race.

Military and technologic considerations, scientific high lights, and questions about psychological aspects of the space program are discussed in the "attempt to put the space program in a realistic light." The "interesting values of exploration of the moon and more distant regions are almost entirely geophysical, having as their object a deeper understanding of the origin and evolution of the solar system… . Making man a part of the scientific exploration of space… increases costs, and it will probably slow down… the pace of getting results." Conditions on the moon and Mars make them undesirable places for colonization. It is increasingly apparent that the national goal of landing a man on the moon is of questionable value. Better evaluation of psychological aspects of the program is desirable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

高温熔盐体系惰性阳极与月壤电解制氧技术

目前,熔盐电化学冶金普遍采用炭素阳极,阳极CO₂产物是重要的碳排放源。若在高温熔盐体系中使用惰性析氧阳极,则可实现熔盐电解过程低碳排放。因此,开发适用于熔盐电解体系的惰性阳极至关重要,也是近年来国内外研究热点。本文首先综述了各种高温熔盐体系惰性阳极的研究进展,所涉及熔盐体系包括:铝电解氟化物盐、CaCl₂熔盐、碳酸盐和熔融氧化物等。另外,近年来月球开发利用受到广泛关注,太阳能驱动的月壤原位熔盐电化学制氧,将是支撑人类未来月面生存氧气需求的重要方法之一,故惰性析氧阳极不可或缺。因此,本文也简要综述了基于惰性阳极的月壤电解制氧技术。      

Moon illusion in pictures: A multimechanism approach.

The existence of the moon illusion in pictorial representations was demonstrated in 6 experiments. Ss either judged the size of the moon in pictures, depicted as on the horizon or high in the sky, or drew horizon and elevated moons. The horizon moon was consistently judged to be larger than the elevated moon, independent of the angle at which the pictures are viewed. The distance paradox usually observed with the moon illusion (horizon moon apparently closer than the elevated moon) also exists in pictures. The magnitude of both size and distance effects depends on the salience of depicted depth cues. The pattern of results suggests that the moon illusion is caused by several interacting mechanisms and that use of pictorial stimuli may allow the separation of various cognitive from physiological contributions to the illusion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Follow-the-Leader Approach to Serpentine Robot Motion Planning

Serpentine robots offer advantages over traditional mobile robots and robot arms because they have enhanced flexibility and reachability, especially in convoluted environments. These robots are well suited to inspect large space-fairing truss structures such as the future space station and can also be used to inspect the Space Shuttle cargo bay before launch. Serpentine mechanisms offer unique capabilities on Earth to applications such as bridge inspection, search and rescue, surface coating, and minimally invasive surgery. The work described in this paper will exploit a geometric structure, termed a roadmap, to guide the motions of a serpentine robot in highly convoluted spaces. This approach offers advantages over previous work with serpentine robots because it provides a general mathematical structure that is not mechanism specific, thereby having applications to a large class of problems.     

Structural Design of Lunar Radio Telescope Using Interactive CAD

Some astronomers are considering the moon as an attractive location within the inner solar system for a variety of astronomical observatories, some of which could be operational early in the 21st century. This paper describes the computer‐aided structural design of a 122‐m diameter, fully steerable, parabolic radio telescope to be located on the moon. The loads acting on such a reflector differ substantially from those acting on a reflector that must operate in earth's environment. The moon has excellent advantages as a location for such an instrument. The absence of atmosphere completely eliminates the wind, snow, and ice loads. The gravity field is only one‐sixth that of earth's. The thermal changes from night to day are severe, but structural problems can be avoided by using a thermally stable composite material. Structural elements for the reflector dish have been analyzed and designed for static loads with a specially written interactive graphical computer program. The resulting structure has a mass nearly 40 times less than its earth's counterpart made of steel. The evaluation of the results of the design studies supports the possibility of building a large‐aperture parabolic radio telescope on the moon.     

Molecular Biology to Radiation Oncology: A Model for Translational Research? Opportunities in basic and translational research. From a workshop sponsored by the National Cancer Institute, Radiation Research Program, January 26-28, 1997, Bethesda, Maryland

Many exciting discoveries are being made that are providing new insights into how molecules, cells and tissues respond to ionizing radiation. There remains a need, however, to translate these findings into more effective treatments for cancer patients, including those treated with radiation therapy. This complex task will require the collaboration of scientists studying molecular, cellular and tissue responses, and those performing clinical trials of emerging therapies. The Radiation Research Program of the National Cancer Institute sponsored a workshop entitled "Molecular Biology to Radiation Oncology: A Model for Translational Research?" to bring together basic scientists and clinicians to exchange ideas and fundamental concepts and to identify opportunities for future research and collaboration. Four broad topics were addressed: signal transduction and apoptosis, the cell cycle, repair of radiation damage, and the microenvironment. The development, selection and use of appropriate experimental models is crucial to finding and developing new therapies, and opportunities exist in this area as well. This paper and the accompanying paper by Coleman and Harris that provides the viewpoint of radiation oncologists (Radiat. Res. 150, 134-147, 1998) summarize the background concepts and opportunities for translational research identified by the workshop participants.     

Survey of the existing housing situation for cats (Felis catus) in German-Swiss animal shelters

This study investigated the current situation of cat husbandry in the animal shelters of german-speaking Switzerland. In 1993, Swiss-german animal shelters occupied just over 5000 housing spaces. Additionally, there was one quarantine space per eight housing spaces. During the summer, which is the season of highest demand, the requirement for housing and quarantine spaces was inadequate. In 1993, approximately 30,000 cats were housed in Swiss-german animal shelters. About four fifths of all entries were boarding cats and the rest were homeless cats. In 1993, about three-quarters of all homeless cats were rehoused with new owners. About a tenth of the remaining cats were reclaimed by their owners. Another tenth of the animals were euthanatized. 63 animal shelters kept cats mainly in group housing enclosures. 15 preferred single/pair boxes, whereas 22 animal shelters used both types of housing. This study shows that more housing and quarantine spaces are needed and should be built for the summer season, to avoid the inadequate housing capacities in Swiss-german animal shelters.     

Lunar Habitat Micrometeoroid and Radiation Shielding: Options, Applications, and Assessments

Various shielding approaches to protect lunar habitats from micrometeoroid and radiation hazards present major trade-off considerations. Popular scenarios that envision covering modules with in situ regolith will necessitate means to excavate and move large amounts of material; will complicate evolutionary outpost growth; and may require long tunnels between connecting pressurized elements. Strategies that incorporate shielding materials into module structures or internal shelters add very substantial launch mass penalties. Utilization of water bladders can make efficient use of consumable/recyclable supplies, but may impose excess capacity deliveries at early development stages. This paper addresses these different shielding approaches from a top-level application perspective, highlighting pros and cons of each. Examples draw upon research and design investigations undertaken by the Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture in support of separate National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) contracts awarded to teams headed by Boeing and ILC-Dover for a “Minimum Functionality Habitation Systems Concept Study.” Comprehensive team study results were presented to NASA in February 2009, and have been released as public information.     

灰介质辐射传热的一种数学模型

在前人工作的基础上，从辐射传热的基本原理出发，给出了描述介质辐射传热的一组控制微分方程组。该方程克服了目前热流法中空间、方向耦合差的缺陷，并反映了辐射传热的三维本质特性，同时也引进了辐射热流方向耦合系数矩阵、辐射热通流量，辐射场强等概念。该方程组较容易与其它传输方程耦合在一起，解决生产实际问题。     

Design Guidelines for Community Shelters for Extreme Wind Events

The design of shelter structures has received little attention from the engineering community since the days of nuclear fallout shelters, until the development of guidance for community shelters for cases of extreme wind events was released by FEMA in July 2000 (FEMA 361). To respond to the recent demand for community shelters, many states are designating existing schools or other public buildings, such as community centers or multipurpose buildings, as public shelter areas. In most cases these buildings, or portions of these buildings, were never designed for use as shelters. Most of the designated shelters were designed and constructed according to older local building codes that do not include requirements for extreme wind pressures and uplift. Even recently designed structures have been found to have inadequate features for a high-wind shelter, particularly with respect to cladding and architectural features that are vulnerable to damage from high winds and windborne debris. Damage to the cladding is often the beginning of building failure and occupant injury during an extreme wind event. This paper identifies critical issues and gaps in presently available technology for evaluating proposed shelters and providing retrofit guidance to building owners. The writers’ experience with inspections of designated shelters, proposed retrofit recommendations, and damage investigations of buildings affected by hurricanes or tornadoes is summarized. Recommendations for design considerations that include the current standards of practice as outlined in FEMA 361, ASCE 7-98, and the Florida Shelter Evaluation Guidelines are given.     

Nests, tree holes, and the evolution of primate life histories

In contrast to the majority of primates, many prosimians, some New World monkeys, and the great apes rest in tree holes or self-constructed nests during their inactive periods. The goal of this comparative study was to examine possible functions of this interspecific variation. Information on resting behavior, maternal behavior, and basic life-history traits was gleaned from the literature and mapped onto a phylogenetic tree of primates for various comparative tests. Parsimony-based reconstructions revealed that only the use of nests or tree holes as shelters for young infants can be unequivocally reconstructed for various higher taxa, suggesting that it is functionally different from the use of shelters by adults (who may be accompanied by infants). Further reconstructions revealed that the ancestral primate was most likely nocturnal and solitary and produced a single infant that was initially left in a shelter and later carried orally to a parking place in the vegetation--a combination of traits exhibited by many living galagos. Evolutionary losses of the use of nests were concentrated among diurnal and nonsolitary taxa and weakly associated with evolutionary increases in body size. Thus, protective functions of nests or tree holes used by prosimians are either secondary or there are alternative ways of obtaining protection. Because the evolution of larger litters was significantly associated with the presence of shelters, the presence of relatively altricial young among prosimians best explains the use of nests and tree holes, which are in most but not all cases also used by adults. These shelters therefore play an integral part in the life-history strategies of primitive primates and their ancestors and evolved secondarily among anthropoids for other purposes.     

Analysis of Lunar-Habitat Structure Using Waterless Concrete and Tension Glass Fibers

The studies reported in this paper were undertaken to evaluate the maximum use of lunar in situ resources for surface construction, such as a habitat structure for a permanent manned lunar base. This type of activity is well into the future, but there are possible near-term applications that could utilize in situ resources for protection from radiation of surface power reactors, solar flares, and micrometeorite damage. “Waterless” concrete made of sulfur, a by-product material of oxygen and carbon extractions, is a viable alternative to hydraulic cement. Sulfur–lunar regolith concrete is an ideal material for building structures on the moon. Its availability, high strength, and durability properties make it a very attractive candidate for the development of the first lunar-construction activities. Regolith-derived glass rebar and fiber can also be used with “concrete” made with in situ regolith. Development of such habitats pose tremendous challenges that can be met by the combination of innovative design with cutting-edge technologies that are appropriate for planetary surface habitats with multiple applications for Earth and beyond.     

HOPE for battered women with PTSD in domestic violence shelters.

Do you feel overwhelmed when attempting to treat battered women with ongoing safety concerns? Could battered women in shelters benefit from psychotherapy in addition to the case management they traditionally receive? What type of treatment would be most beneficial for battered women in shelters? Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most prevalent disorder associated with intimate partner violence (IPV). PTSD is associated with severe impairment and loss of resources, which can severely impact a sheltered battered woman’s ability to establish long-term safety for herself and her children. Consequently, we have developed a new treatment for sheltered battered women with PTSD, Helping to Overcome PTSD through Empowerment (HOPE). HOPE is a short-term cognitive-behavioral treatment in a preliminary stage of development for battered women with PTSD in domestic violence shelters. It focuses on stabilization, safety, and empowerment and teaches women skills to manage their PTSD symptoms that may interfere with their ability to access important community resources and establish safety for themselves and their children. A case example utilizing HOPE is offered. Future directions and clinical applications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)