Allegations of wrongdoing: The effects of reinforcement on children's mundane and fantastic claims.

S. Garven, J. M. Wood, R. S. Malpass, and J. S. Shaw (1998) found that the interviewing techniques used in the McMartin Preschool case can induce preschool children to make false allegations of wrongdoing against a classroom visitor. In this study, 2 specific components of the McMartin interviews, reinforcement and cowitness information, were examined more closely in interviews of 120 children, ages 5 to 7 years. Children who received reinforcement made 35% false allegations against a classroom visitor, compared with 12% made by controls. When questioned about "fantastic" events (e.g., being taken from school in a helicopter), children receiving reinforcement made 52% false allegations, compared with 5% made by controls. In a second interview, children repeated the allegations even when reinforcement had been discontinued. The findings indicate that reinforcement can swiftly induce children to make persistent false allegations of wrongdoing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of repeated experience on children's suggestibility.

The effect of suggestive questions on 3- to 5-year old and 6- to 8-year old children's recall of the final occurrence of a repeated event was examined. The event included fixed (identical items) as well as variable items where a new instantiation represented the item in each occurrence of the series. Relative to reports of children who participated in a single occurrence, children's reports about fixed items of the repeated event were more accurate and less contaminated by false suggestions. For variable items, repeated experience led to a decline in memory of the specific occurrence; however, there was no increase in susceptibility to suggestions about details from nontarget occurrences. Although younger children and children who were interviewed a while after the event were more suggestible, respectively, than older children and those interviewed soon after the event, repeated experience attenuated these effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memorial consequences of forced confabulation: age differences in susceptibility to false memories

Numerous studies have demonstrated that exposure to misinformation about a witnessed event can lead to false memories in both children and adults. The present study extends this finding by identifying forced confabulation as another potent suggestive influence. Participants from 3 age groups (1st grade, 3rd/4th grade, and college age) viewed a clip from a movie and were "forced" to answer questions about events that clearly never happened in the video they had seen. Despite evidence that participants would not have answered these questions had they not been coerced into doing so, 1 week later participants in all age groups came to have false memories for the details they had knowingly fabricated earlier. The results also showed that children were more prone to this memory error than were adults.     

Use of a structured investigative protocol enhances young children's responses to free-recall prompts in the course of forensic interviews.

One hundred alleged victims of child sexual abuse (ages 4–12 years; M?=?8.1 years) were interviewed by police investigators about their alleged experiences. Half of the children were interviewed using the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development's structured interview protocol, whereas the other children—matched with respect to their age, relationship with the alleged perpetrator, and seriousness of the alleged offenses—were interviewed using standard interview practices. Protocol-guided interviews elicited more information using open-ended prompts and less information using option-posing and suggestive questions than did standard interviews; there were no age differences in the amount of information provided in response to open-ended invitations. In 89% of the protocol interviews, children made their preliminary allegations in response to open-ended prompts, compared with 36% in the standard interviews. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on preschoolers' reports.

Children's (N?=?176) reported memories of a strange man's visit were studied. Three- to 6-year-olds were interviewed repeatedly after the event in one of the following conditions: (a) control, in which no interviews contained suggestive questions; (b) stereotype, in which children were given previsit expectations about the stranger; (c) suggestion, in which interviews contained erroneous suggestions about misdeeds committed by the stranger; and (d) stereotype plus suggestion, in which children were given both pre- and postvisit manipulations. Results from open-ended interviews after 10 weeks indicated that control participants provided accurate reports, stereotypes resulted in a modest number of false reports, and suggestions resulted in a substantial number of false reports. Children in the stereotype-plus-suggestion group made high levels of false reports. All experimental conditions showed dramatic developmental trends favoring older children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do we need to rethink guidance on repeated interviews?

Within the legal system, children are frequently interviewed about their experiences more than once, with different information elicited in different interviews. The presumed positive and negative effects of multiple interviewing have generated debate and controversy within the legal system and among researchers. Some commentators emphasize that repeated interviews foster inaccurate recall and are inherently suggestive, whereas others emphasize the benefits of allowing witnesses more than 1 opportunity to recall information. In this article, we briefly review the literature on repeated interviewing before presenting a series of cases highlighting what happens when children are interviewed more than once for various reasons. We conclude that, when interviewers follow internationally recognized best-practice guidelines emphasizing open-questions and free memory recall, alleged victims of abuse should be interviewed more than once to ensure that more complete accounts are obtained. Implications for current legal guidelines concerning repeated interviewing are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mexican-American mothers' socialization strategies: effects of education, acculturation, and health locus of control

The present study examined maternal education, acculturation, and health locus of control beliefs in relation to parenting strategies that promote the internalization of healthy eating habits in Mexican-American children. Eighty low-income Mexican-American mothers and their 4- to 8-year-old children participated in the study. Mother-child interactions during dinner were observed, and mothers were interviewed about the socialization strategies they used to influence their children's food consumption. Results indicated that mothers with more external health locus of control beliefs were less likely to use socialization techniques associated with internalization. Acculturation was negatively related to the use of internalization techniques, with less traditional mothers using more directive strategies. Education did not predict maternal behavior after controlling for health locus of control beliefs.     

Helping children to remember: The influence of object cues on children's accounts of a real event.

Examined the effects of reinstating objects from an event on 6- and 9-year-old children's reports of the event in which they had either participated or observed. Half of the 95 children were interviewed twice, 10 days and 10 weeks after the event (Group 1), and the remaining children were interviewed a single time, 10 weeks after (Group 2). Following free recall, prompted recall and direct questions were accompanied by objects from the event and distractors for half the children. The effect of the delay on free recall was ameliorated by the prior interview for older but not younger children. Objects attenuated age differences in prompted recall for participants and enhanced accuracy in response to questions. Objects also led to more errors at the long delay. Analyses based on signal detection theory indicated that both response strategy and memory-related factors contributed to developmental changes in compliance with misleading questions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acceptability of alternative treatments for children: Evaluations by inpatient children, parents, and staff.

32 child psychiatric inpatients (7–13 yrs), 32 parents, and 32 staff evaluated the acceptability of alternative treatments for children. Clinical cases of children who displayed severe behavioral problems at home and at school were described along with 4 different treatments. The treatments included positive reinforcement of incompatible behavior, positive practice, medication, and time out from reinforcement. Results show that reinforcement of incompatible behavior was more acceptable than other treatments that followed, in order, positive practice, medication, and time out from reinforcement. Positive practice and medication were no different from each other in acceptability but significantly more acceptable than time out. Although children rated treatments as less acceptable than did parents, the relative standing of different treatments was identical for children, parents, and staff. Results indicate that disturbed children and their parents can readily distinguish the acceptability of alternative treatments. The implications and relevance of acceptability as an important dimension for treatment selection and evaluation are highlighted. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The child's differential perception of parental attributes.

"A group of 67 children were individually interviewed with three different methods (indirect questions, picture-completion task, direct questions) to obtain information on perception of the parents with respect to nurturance, punitiveness, source of fear, and competence… . On all three methods the fathers were seen as more fear arousing, more competent, and more punitive than mothers. Mothers were seen as 'nicer' and more likely to give presents. This result held for both sexes." The method of asking direct questions was seen to elicit more evasive answers. From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2FG40K. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emergency department-based HIV screening and counseling: experience with rapid and standard serologic testing

OBJECTIVE: To examine the feasibility of conducting a reverse record-check study to validate parent reporting on child mental health service use and to examine the accuracy of parent reports of child mental health services. METHOD: Information about child service use was abstracted from medical records and subsequently compared with reports provided by caregivers in telephone interviews. A sample of children using outpatient psychiatric services was compared with a sample of children using outpatient orthopaedic services. Rates and correlates of successful caregiver tracking and of service use reporting accuracy were explored. RESULTS: Caregivers of nearly 30% of all index children were contacted and interviewed. Parent reports of lifetime mental health service use were more accurate than reports of lifetime receipt of orthopaedic services. Elapsed time between survey interview and last treatment episode was negatively associated with reporting accuracy. Number of clinic visits was positively associated with reporting accuracy. Preliminary findings suggested that questions about mental health services may be considered sensitive by parents whose children use them. CONCLUSIONS: Reverse record-check studies based on telephone interviews are potentially problematic with a sample drawn from a large, inner-city medical center. Findings suggest that memory difficulties may be a more important correlate of reporting accuracy than response editing (social desirability). Potential discomfort with disclosure of mental health service use does not result in service use underreporting.     

Effects of modeling and reinforcement on adult chronic schizophrenics.

Modified the expressed preferences of 32 male schizophrenics for 8 pairs of popular magazines by 1 of 3 treatments lasting 4 days. Adult male models demonstrated the desired responses in 2 of these treatments. 2 hypotheses generated from studies with children only were tested: (a) model contributes to new learning; and (b) neither the model nor the reinforcement of the model add significantly to motivation, beyond the effect that can be attributed to reinforcement of the S himself. Ss were reinforced socially and monetarily in all treatments: (a) no model, (b) model reinforced, and (c) model not reinforced. A no-treatment control condition was included. Results support the hypotheses. Application of these techniques to the more central informational and motivational deficits of schizophrenics are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of children's stories on dependency, a sex-typed behavior.

Examined the influence of models in stories on the dependent behavior (help seeking) and independent behavior (the withholding of help-seeking responses) of 80 5-yr-olds. Before hearing 1 of 4 stories, each S was told that he/she would be asked questions to see how much was remembered from it. In 2 stories, the behavior of a child model was dependent: the model sought help in and was verbally reinforced for solving a puzzle. Results suggest a somewhat more complex model for the process of sex role development than is frequently proposed. That females who were not exposed to any verbally presented models did not differ significantly from males in help seeking is in accord with previous findings (R. M. Oetzel, 1966) that sex differences in dependent behavior are not very strong in young children. Following exposure to either a dependent or an independent child model, females showed a significantly greater willingness to seek help than did males exposed to the same models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental differences in the effects of repeated interviews and interviewer bias on young children's event memory and false reports.

The present study investigated developmental differences in the effects of repeated interviews and interviewer bias on children's memory and suggestibility. Three- and 5-year-olds were singly or repeatedly interviewed about a play event by a highly biased or control interviewer. Children interviewed once by the biased interviewer after a long delay made the most errors. Children interviewed repeatedly, regardless of interviewer bias, were more accurate and less likely to falsely claim that they played with a man. In free recall, among children questioned once after a long delay by the biased interviewer, 5-year-olds were more likely than were 3-year-olds to claim falsely that they played with a man. However, in response to direct questions, 3-year-olds were more easily manipulated into implying that they played with him. Findings suggest that interviewer bias is particularly problematic when children's memory has weakened. In contrast, repeated interviews that occur a short time after a to-be-remembered event do not necessarily increase children's errors, even when interviews include misleading questions and interviewer bias. Implications for developmental differences in memory and suggestibility are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A case of PTH related protein-producing large cell carcinoma of the lung]

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of symptoms suggestive of asthma in children aged 7-14 years in Ankara, Turkey. For this purpose, the recently developed ISAAC (International Study for Asthma and Allergies in Childhood) questionnaire supplemented with six additional questions was issued to parents of 3154 primary school children from 12 schools. A separate page with questions regarding risk factors was also added to the questionnaire. The response rate was 88.3%. The cumulative and 12-month prevalence of wheezing were 14.4 and 4.7% respectively. The prevalence of physician-diagnosed asthma was 8.1%. A family history of atopy was found to be the strongest risk factor for having ever had wheezing (odds ratio (OR) = 2.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2.32-3.60), wheezing in the past 12 months (OR = 3.21, CI = 2.21-4.67), and severe attack (OR = 2.41, CI = 1.36-4.25). Passive smoking was a risk only for having ever had wheezing (OR = 1.33, CI = 1.03-1.76). Increasing age was associated with a lower risk of current wheezing (OR = 0.85, CI = 0.81-0.90) and severe attack (OR = 0.77, CI = 0.67-0.88). Gender, socio-economic level and pet ownership did not appear to be risk factors for asthma-related symptoms. This study, the first epidemiological survey in Ankara, Turkey, using the ISAAC protocol, clearly shows that symptoms suggestive of asthma, albeit lower than in most European countries, are quite common and constitute a major health problem in Turkey.     

Retention of advanced cardiopulmonary resuscitation knowledge by intensive care trained nurses

The teaching and reinforcing of advanced cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ACPR) is an important part of the role of an intensive care nurse manager. This study highlights the need for a structured training programme, as well as regular updates in ACPR. Current research shows poor retention of CPR skills amongst nursing staff. A small study was undertaken amongst intensive care trained nurses at The Middlesex Hospital intensive care unit (ICU). 18 nurses took part in the study, and were each interviewed with regard to their knowledge of ACPR in December 1990. The period of time since last trained in ACPR ranged from 2 months-4 years. Those who had been recently updated in ACPR (up to 4 months prior to interview) scored higher than those who were updated more than 2 years ago. The results showed that most nurses interviewed were only able to answer correctly half the questions asked. These results indicate that the nurses in the study generally demonstrated a severe lack of knowledge of ACPR. This indicates the need for a structured training package in ACPR, followed by frequent reinforcement of ACPR knowledge and skills for nurses practising in an ICU environment.     

Complex language and comprehension monitoring: Teaching child witnesses to recognize linguistic confusion.

The authors investigated the efficacy of 2 child witness preparation programs: task demand training (TDT) and comprehension-monitoring training (CMT) with task demand training (CMT + TDT). Preschool (M?=?60.8 months), kindergarten (M?=?76.0 months) and 2nd-grade (M?=?98.1 months) children participated. All children participated in either TDT (n?=?56), or TDT + CMT (n?=?43). After training, participants were interviewed about a video they watched. Questions contained either simple or complex language. Results suggest TDT + CMT better prepares witnesses of all ages for complex-language questions. When faced with complex-language questions, the TDT + CMT group averaged more requests for rephrasings than the TDT group. These data suggest even the very young children in this investigation benefited from the court preparation protocol including TDT and CMT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Young children's emerging ability to make false statements.

This study examined the origins of children's ability to make consciously false statements, a necessary component of lying. Children 2 to 5 years of age were rewarded for claiming that they saw a picture of a bird when viewing pictures of fish. They were asked outcome questions (“Do you win/lose?”), recognition questions (“Do you have a bird/fish?”), and recall questions (“What do you have?”), which were hypothesized to vary in difficulty depending on the need for consciousness of falsity (less for outcome questions) and self-generation of an appropriate response (more for recall questions). The youngest children (2? to 3? years old) were above chance on outcome questions, but it was not until age 3? that children performed above chance on recognition questions or were capable of maintaining false claims across question types. Findings have implications for understanding the emergence of deception in young children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)