Preference and juiciness of Iberian dry-cured loin as affected by intramuscular fat content, crossbreeding and rearing system

Preference ranking tests for juiciness and overall liking of dry cured loins from Iberian pigs with different genetic backgrounds (pure Iberian or crossbred Iberian×Duroc pigs), reared under different productive systems (outdoors on acorns and grass or indoors with mixed diets) and with different intramuscular fat (IMF) content, were conducted. IMF showed a positive influence on preference for juiciness and liking in subjects over 25 years of age, while younger consumers showed a similar trend for juiciness but not for preference. Loins from pure Iberian pigs showed significantly better ranking for juiciness and overall liking than those from crossbred pigs, even when the IMF content was similar. Dry cured loins from pigs reared outdoors and fed on acorns and pasture were ranked significantly better than those from animals fed indoors on concentrates, even though the mixed diets used were enriched in monounsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E in order to obtain meat with similar features to that of pigs reared outdoors, and despite very similar IMF contents. In conclusion, dry cured loins with high IMF content, from pure Iberian pigs and reared outdoors on acorns and grass attain the highest consumer preference.     

Sensory characteristics of Iberian dry-cured loins: Influence of crossbreeding and rearing system

The sensory characteristics of Iberian dry-cured loins and the influence of crossbreeding (pure Iberian - IB, Iberian female×Duroc male - IB×D and Duroc female×Iberian male - D×IB) and rearing system (outdoors fed on acorns and pasture - MON, indoors fed on concentrates high in oleic acid sunflower oil and supplemented with 250mg/kg of α-tocopherol acetate -HOVE- and indoors fed on control concentrates - CON) on sensory attributes were studied. Dry-cured loins from IB-MON and IB-HOVE pigs, which showed the highest intramuscular fat (IMF) content (p<0.01), reached higher scores for brightness, marbling traits (intensity, size and shape) and juiciness, and lower for hardness, dryness and fibrousness than loins from crossbred pigs (IB×D-HOVE, IB×D-CON and D×IB-HOVE). In fact, IMF content was positively linked to juiciness and marbling attributes and negatively to dryness, hardness and fibrousness, which was also observed in the principal component analysis (PCA). Neither the crossbreeding nor the rearing system seemed to influence odour, flavour and taste features. The PCA evidenced that dry-cured loins from IB-MON and IB-HOVE batches gathered together and were placed near to marbling attributes, juiciness and IMF content.     

Influence of a severe reduction of the feeding level during the period immediately prior to free‐range fattening on performance and fat quality in Iberian pigs

BACKGROUND: Restricted feeding before fattening is a common procedure in the production of Iberian pigs, but little scientific information about its consequences on productive traits and characteristics of fat is available. This work studied the effect of a severe feeding restriction previous to the free‐range fattening on carcass and fat quality traits in Iberian pigs, considering two different feeding levels (high restriction: HR; versus maintenance level: M) before free‐range fattening. RESULTS: Animals from the M group showed longer and higher‐perimeter hams and tended (P < 0.10) to show higher slaughter and carcass weights, carcass inner length and loin and sirloin weights than HR ones. Animals from the HR group showed lower proportions of total saturated fatty acids (SFA) and higher total monounsaturated fatty acids in the backfat inner layer than those from the M group. Total polyunsaturated fatty acids in intramuscular neutral lipids were higher in HR pigs than in M ones, while stearic acid (C18:0) was lower. The average daily gain, fatty acid profile of the outer backfat layer and that of the hepatic polar and neutral lipids and the rheological features of backfat inner layer remained unaffected. CONCLUSION: A severe reduction of the feeding level previous to free‐range fattening does not produce compensatory growth, tends to diminish carcass quality and to slightly increase IMF content and improves the fatty acid profile of the inner backfat layer. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Influences of anatomical location and muscle quality on porcine lipid composition

Carcasses of sixty Lacombe and Lacombe cross swine fed the same high concentrate ration were selected to equally represent three muscle quality groups (pale soft exudative (PSE), normal and dark firm dry (DFD)). These carcasses were utilised to supply back and belly fat samples for the evaluation of the influences of muscle quality and anatomical location on fatty acid composition. Back fat samples had lower percentages of palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) acids, long (≥ C18), and short (≤ C16) chain saturated fatty acids and total saturated fatty acids and higher percentages of oleic (C18:1) and linoleic (C18:2) acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids and total unsaturated fatty acids than belly fat samples. They also had a higher unsaturated fatty acid to saturated fatty acid ratio than belly fat samples. Carcasses with DFD hams and loins had lower percentages of palmitoleic (C16:1) and linoleic (C18:2) acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids in their back fat than those with PSE hams and loins. They also had higher (P < 0·05) percentages of myristic (C14: 0) and stearic (C18:0) acids and long chain saturated fatty acids (≥ C18) and lower percentages (P < 0·05) of palmitic (C16:0) and palmitoleic (C16:1) acids in their back fat than carcasses with normal hams and loins. Moreover, they had lower (P < 0·05) percentages of palmitoleic (C16:1) and linoleic (C18:2) acids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids in their belly fat than carcasses with normal and PSE hams and loins. The fact that the lipid composition of carcasses differed significantly among muscle quality groups is of considerable importance, since it implies that factors (stress) producing differences in muscle quality may also significantly influence the fatty acid composition-and thereby the physical properties of carcass lipids.     

Effects of RN genotype and silage feed on fat content and fatty acid composition of fresh and cooked pork loin

This study aimed to establish effects of RN genotype and feed (red clover silage) on intra muscular fat content (IMF) and fatty acid composition (FA) of fresh and cooked pork loin (M. longissimus dorsi). Raw loins from silage-fed pigs compared with those from conventionally fed pigs had lower IMF, lower relative levels (rel.%) of saturated (SAFA) and monounsaturated (MUFA) fatty acids, and higher rel.% of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA, ω6, ω3). Cooked loins, from silage-fed pigs compared with those of conventionally fed pigs, had higher rel.% of ω3, and lower ω6/ω3 ratios. IMF and cooking influenced FA concentrations in a pork portion. The differences in concentrations of SAFA, MUFA, PUFA and ω6 between raw loins of silage-fed pigs and conventionally fed pigs did not remain in cooked loins. The ω6/ω3 ratio, however, remained low, and thus more beneficial in loins from silage-fed pigs after cooking.     

Extensive feeding versus oleic acid and tocopherol enriched mixed diets for the production of Iberian dry-cured hams: Effect on chemical composition, oxidative status and sensory traits

The present study aimed to analyse the chemical composition and oxidative status of Iberian dry-cured hams from pigs fed different finishing diets: extensive feeding on acorns and pasture in a "Montanera" traditional system (MON), fed in confinement with a mixed diet containing high-oleic sunflower oil (115g/kg of diet) and supplemented with 250mg/kg α-tocopherol (HOVE), and fed in confinement control mixed diet (CON) without added tocopherol and oleic acid fat. Muscles from MON dry-cured hams contained significantly (p<0.05) higher amounts of intramuscular fat (IMF) than those from HOVE and CON hams. The feeding background affected the tocopherol levels in dry-cured hams as those from MON and HOVE pigs had significantly higher levels of α-tocopherol than those from CON pigs whereas the extensive feeding provided muscles from MON pigs with significantly higher levels of γ-tocopherol than the experimental diets did to CON and HOVE pigs. The HOVE diet significantly increased the levels of oleic acid in Iberian dry-cured hams with these levels being similar to the oleic acid levels found in MON hams and significantly higher than those in CON hams. Compared to dry-cured hams from CON pigs, those from MON and HOVE pigs exhibited a higher oxidative stability as a likely result of a most favourable fatty acid composition and the presence of higher tocopherol levels. The principal component analysis (PCA) successfully discriminated between dry-cured hams from pigs fed different finishing diets.     

Analysis of volatile compounds of Iberian dry-cured loins with different intramuscular fat contents using SPME-DED

In order to study the effect of both, ripening time and IMF content on the volatile profile of Iberian dry-cured loin, volatile compounds from the headspace of 10 Iberian dry-cured loins with different intramuscular fat contents (IMF), low (average IMF content of 2.3%) and high (average IMF content of 6.7%), at days 40 and 55 of the ripening process were analysed using SPME coupled to a direct extraction device (DED) and subsequent gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Chromatographic areas of the main chemical families detected (hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones and acids) increased with ripening time. A higher total chromatographic area was detected in the headspace of high IMF loins compared to low IMF ones. Several volatile compounds derived from lipid oxidative reactions, such as hexanol, octanal, (E,E)-2,4-heptadienal or (E)-2-decenal, and others from the degradation of certain amino acids, such as dimethylsulfide, 3-methylbutanal or phenylacetaldehyde, showed higher chromatographic areas in the headspace of high IMF loins than in low IMF ones. Thus, IMF content could influence both the generation of volatile compounds and the transfer of such compounds from the product matrix to the headspace.     

Carcass composition and meat quality of three different Iberian×Duroc genotype pigs

Carcass composition and meat quality of Longissimus dorsi (LD) and Biceps femoris (BF) muscles from three different Iberian×Duroc genotype pigs were studied: GEN1: ♂ Iberian×♀ Duroc1; GEN2: ♂ Duroc1×♀ Iberian; GEN3: ♂ Duroc2×♀ Iberian. Duroc1 (DU1) were selected for the manufacture of dry-cured meat products while Duroc2 (DU2) were pigs selected for meat production, with high percentages of meat cuts and low carcass fat. Genotype had a significant effect on the differences found while sex had not. GEN2 showed the highest weights at days 180 and 238 of weaning and the highest slaughter weights (day 316) followed by GEN3, while the lowest weights were found in GEN1. GEN3 had well conformed carcasses in comparison with GEN1 and GEN2, since GEN3 showed the highest percentages of ham and loin and the highest weight of loin as well as the lowest back and ham fat thickness. However, the use of DU2 pigs in the cross with Iberian had negative effects on meat quality, as GEN3 gave the worst meat quality in both muscles, postmortem pH, cook and drip loss, and colour and the lowest percentages of intramuscular fat (IMF). In subcutaneous fat (SCF), GEN3 had higher percentages of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) than GEN2, while GEN2 had higher saturated fatty acids (SFA) levels. In LD, IMF from GEN3 showed the highest percentage of MUFA and PUFA; while the fatty acid profile of GEN2 was more saturated. BF muscle showed similar trends, but not significantly so. On the other hand, few differences were found between reciprocal crosses (GEN1 vs. GEN2). GEN2 showed higher IMF in LD than GEN1, agreeing with their carcass weight. As a result, GEN1 had a fatty acid profile of IMF in the LD that was more unsaturated.     

Fatty acids and triacylglycerols profiles from different types of Iberian dry-cured hams

Thirty hams were allotted into four groups according to fattening diet ("Montanera" - acorns and pasture; and "Pienso" - concentrated diet) and genotype of pigs (Iberian and Iberian×Duroc pigs). Total lipids, triacylglycerol composition and fatty acids from neutral lipids fraction were measured in biceps femoris muscle. Fattening diet largely affected lipid composition of hams. Total intramuscular lipids and triacylglycerols content were higher in Montanera hams than in Pienso hams. In Montanera hams, triacylglycerols contained more oleic acid (C18:1) and less stearic (C18:0) and palmitic (C16:0) acids (p<0.001) and accordingly less PSO, PPL, PPO, PPS, SSO (p<0.001) and more OLL, OOL, OOO triacylglycerols compared to Pienso hams (p<0.001). Genotype of pigs has an important effect in triacylglycerols composition but only a limited effect on their fatty acids composition. So, Iberian hams contained more of PLLn, PLL, POLn and POL+SLL compared to Iberian×Duroc hams (p<0.001) and POO and SOO were present in a higher quantity in Iberian×Duroc hams (p<0.01).     

Genetic parameters for carcass composition and performance data in crossbred lambs measured by Video Image Analysis

A total of 7074 crossbred lambs, produced by mating crossbred Mule ewes with terminal sire rams were used in this study. Of these, 630 were scanned using a Video Image Analysis (VIA) to estimate carcass quality traits. Genetic parameters for average daily gain (ADG), scanning live weight (SW), ultrasonic measures of muscle (UMD) and fat (UFD) depths, cold carcass weight (CCW) and VIA measurements of primal carcass joint weights (LEG, CHUMP, LOIN, BREAST and SHOULDER) were estimated using multivariate animal models. Additionally, VIA traits were evaluated under a repeatability model, considering the primal joints as repeated measures of the same trait. Direct heritability estimates were low to moderate (0.08–0.26) for VIA measurements of primal joints. Repeatability estimates for VIA traits were high (>0.90). Moderate to high heritability estimates (0.25–0.55) were found for performance traits (ADG, SW, UMD and UFD) and CCW. Genetic correlations between VIA traits and ADG were strong (0.75–0.93). Most of the VIA traits were highly correlated to SW (0.60–0.97). UFD was significantly negatively correlated with UMD (−0.22), ADG (−0.18) and CCW (−0.18). The results of this study suggest that selection on performance and carcass traits, measured by VIA, could possibly improve primal meat yield of carcass cuts without increasing the overall carcass fatness. High repeatability estimates of VIA traits and moderate heritabilities of the most valuable carcass joints suggests that including VIA information in breeding programs would be useful in order to improve carcass quality.     

Dietary CLA alters intramuscular fat and fatty acid composition of pig skeletal muscle and subcutaneous adipose tissue

The present study was conducted to determinate the responsiveness of different levels of dietary conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on intramuscular fat (IMF) and fatty acid composition of skeletal muscle and fat in pigs fed from 59.5 to 133.5 kg. Forty female Large White × (Large White × Landrace) pigs were used. Four levels (0%, 0.5%, 1% and 2%) of a commercial enriched CLA oil supplementation (60% of CLA isomers, 30% cis-9, trans-11 and 30% trans-10, cis-12) were fed to pigs. Carcass, ham, foreleg and loin weights were recorded. Dietary CLA enrichment increased the loin weight (P < 0.01) and the combined weights of hams + forelegs + loins (P < 0.02). IMF content in Longissimus dorsi was also increased by dietary CLA treatment (P < 0.001) and a linear response was observed. Dietary CLA increased saturated fatty acids (SFA) and decreased monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in muscle and adipose tissue (P < 0.001). Feeding 1% CLA to finishing swine increases IMF in heavy pigs slaughtered at an average weight of 133.5 kg.     

Ultrasonic and sensory characterization of dry-cured ham fat from Iberian pigs with different genetics and feeding backgrounds

The textural and ultrasonic properties of the subcutaneous fat from five batches of dry-cured hams from animals with different genetics (Iberian, Iberian×Duroc) and type of feeding ("montanera", concentrate feeds with different oleic acid content) were studied and related to the sensory traits (oiliness and brightness) of their biceps femoris muscle. The different genetics and feeding backgrounds found in the batches brought about differences in their ultrasonic velocities (average velocity from 4 to 20°C ranged from 1608 to 1650m/s) and textural parameters (maximum force at 8°C ranged from 11 to 21N). On average, batches with lower textural parameters had lower velocities and higher sensory scores. Ultrasonic measurements were used to carry out a discriminant analysis which allowed 78.3% of the samples to be correctly classified in the batches considered. Therefore, ultrasonic and sensory techniques could be useful in the characterization and differentiation of dry-cured hams from Iberian pigs.     

Texture and appearance of dry cured ham as affected by fat content and fatty acid composition

The relationship between texture and appearance characteristics and the moisture, intramuscular fat (IMF) content and fatty acid composition of dry cured Iberian ham was studied using principal component analysis. Intramuscular fat content positively influenced the proportion of oleic acid (R=0.5578), and exhibited a negative relationship with linoleic and arachidonic acids (R=−0.5215 and −0.5770 respectively). IMF content also had a positive influence on some texture and appearance traits of ham, such as oiliness, brightness, juiciness and marbling. However, it was negatively related to dryness, fibrousness and hardness. Moisture displayed no relationship with juiciness, dryness or any other textural or appearance trait. Therefore, within the ranges of fat content and moisture found in the present study, IMF content has a stronger influence on the texture of ham than the degree of dehydration.     

Lipolysis in dry-cured ham: Influence of salt content and processing conditions

Fatty acid composition of neutral lipids (NLs), polar lipids (PLs) and free fatty acids (FFA) from the intramuscular fat of Semimembranosus and Biceps femoris muscles was analysed in 46 Iberian dry-cured hams processed with different amounts of salt (6% high salt batch – HS vs. 3% low salt batch – LS w/w) and different processing systems (traditional – T vs. modified – M).

Total amounts of saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids in NLs decreased in similar proportions during processing of the hams as well as SFA, MUFA and PUFA in the PL fraction, whereas the amounts of SFA, MUFA and PUFA of FFAs significantly increased in Semimembranosus and Biceps femoris muscles. The amount of total fatty acids (TFA), from NLs and PLs, decreased in both muscles throughout the processing. Such a decline was more intense in HS hams than in LS ones, which could be a sign of a promoting effect of sodium chloride on lipolysis. However, the increase in FFA content throughout processing was not more intense in HS hams. Processing conditions studied in this work did not affect the changes in the fatty acid content of each fraction.     

Effect of Iberian×Duroc genotype on dry-cured loin quality

Dry-cured loins from three different pig genotypes were studied: GEN1: ♂ Iberian × ♀ Duroc1, GEN2: ♂ Duroc1 × ♀ Iberian; GEN3: ♂ Duroc2 × ♀ Iberian. GEN1 and GEN2 are reciprocal crosses, while the difference between GEN2 and GEN3 is the Duroc sire line. The genotype of pigs Duroc1 was selected for the manufacture of dry-cured meat products, while the genotype Duroc2 was selected for meat production. The chemical composition of the dry-cured loins was significantly different, especially the intramuscular fat (IMF) content which was highest in GEN2. Dry-cured loins from GEN3 showed lower CIE a^∗ and chroma values. IMF from GEN2 was more saturated whereas GEN3 had higher percentages of PUFA and MUFA. Loins from GEN3 had higher TBA-RS values (p > 0.05) and hexanal contents. Loins from GEN3 had higher Warner–Bratzler shear force (p > 0.05) and instrumental hardness than those from GEN2, being intermediate in GEN1. Panellists considered that loins from GEN2 were more marbled, more odorous, juicier, sweeter and less salty than loins from GEN3. Therefore, loins from GEN2 had the best quality, followed by GEN1, while GEN3 had the worst quality.     

Effect of feeding system on the growth and carcass characteristics of Iberian pigs, and the use of ultrasound to estimate yields of joints

Forty three-castrated male Iberian pigs of the Torbiscal line with an average initial weight of 102.27kg were used. A group of 22 pigs was fed according to the traditional way in free-range conditions with acorn and grass from November to January. Another group of 21 animals was fed 3.72kg/day of a conventional feed that contained 12.53MJME/kg, 16.21% crude protein, 4.94% fat and 6.64% of crude fiber, during the same period. Measurements of backfat thickness and Longissimus dorsi muscle area at the last rib were taken by means of a real-time ultrasound device (Kretz Technick Inc., 600 V-V2.32, Sonovet, Austria) in all pigs before slaughter. After slaughter, carcass, ham and foreleg weights and backfat and muscle area measurement from the last rib chop were recorded. The average daily gain, carcass yield, fat thickness, loin area, ham weight and proportion of hams were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the pigs fed in confinement than in those fed extensively (653.36g, 77.97%, 56.46mm, 3031mm(2), 22.26kg and 14.32% vs 501.48g, 76.94%, 51.74mm, 2673mm(2), 21.52kg and 13.79%, respectively). This paper shows the prediction equations for hams, forelegs and total hams and forelegs weights and proportions with respect to slaughter weight and live ultrasound measurements in pigs fed either extensively or in confinement. The ultrasound measurements better predicted the carcass cuts absolute amounts (R(2)=0.591-0.875) than the carcass cuts proportions (R(2)=0.23-0.40). The use of real-time ultrasound should be used with caution to predict the absolute quantities of hams and forelegs from Iberian pigs since the ultrasound measurements are only moderately accurate.     

Instrumental colour of Iberian ham subcutaneous fat and lean (biceps femoris): Influence of crossbreeding and rearing system

The influence of crossbreeding (Iberian vs Iberian×Duroc 50% pigs) and rearing system (Montanera vs Pienso) on the instrumental colour of Iberian ham (subcutaneous fat and biceps femoris muscle) and the relationships to sensory appearance and chemical composition were researched by using a factorial design. In subcutaneous fat, a significant effect (p<0.05) of crossbreeding and rearing system was found: b* and chroma were larger in hams from Iberian pigs than from Iberian×Duroc (50%) pigs, and L*, a* and chroma were larger in Pienso hams than in Montanera hams. CIEL*a*b* variables of subcutaneous fat were closely related to subcutaneous fatty acid composition, the largest correlationships involving L* (L* and 18:0, 0.652, p<0.001; L* and 18:1, -0.616, p<0.001). Instrumental colour variables and sensory appearance were also correlated (L* and fat pinkness, -0.539, p<0.001). In lean (biceps femoris), instrumental colour data was not affected by crossbreeding and rearing system. CIEL*a*b* variables were not related to chemical composition (moisture, NaCl, intramuscular fat and pigment content), although they were correlated to sensory appearance (L* and marbling, 0.419, p=0.014).     

Meat quality characteristics of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). 3: Fatty acid composition as influenced by age, gender and production region

The effects of age, gender and production region on the fatty acid composition of springbok Musculus longissimus dorsi (LD) were investigated. The major fatty acid of the LD muscle was stearic acid (C18:0), which contributed 23.92–27.02%. Oleic acid (C18:1) represented the largest component (16.33–20.45%) of the mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). The major n − 6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) was C18:2n − 6, which formed 18.77–21.62%, whereas C18:3n − 3 (3.33–4.00%) was the most abundant n − 3 PUFA. The n − 6:n − 3 ratio of the meat varied from 3.02 to 3.35, with an average ratio of 3.2. Polyunsaturated to saturated (P:S) ratios varied between 0.96 and 1.18 and averaged at 1.06. Total MUFA was found to be higher (P < 0.05) in males (20.99%) than females (16.67%). The cholesterol content of the meat varied from 54.45 to 59.34 mg/100 g muscle. Linear correlations between the fatty acid and the intramuscular fat (IMF) content indicated a significant increase in certain saturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids with increasing IMF content of the meat.     

MRI-based analysis,lipid composition and sensory traits for studying Iberian dry-cured hams from pigs fed with different diets

The present work was aimed to study Iberian dry-cured hams from pigs reared outdoors and either fed with acorns and grass (AG) or with oleic acid enriched concentrates (HO), by means of their fatty acid profile, sensory traits and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). The level of total saturated fatty acids (SFA) was higher in HO than in AG hams, whereas total monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) showed higher proportions in AG than in HO Iberian dry-cured hams. Besides, lower levels of the n ? 6/n ? 3 ratio were found in AG than in HO dry-cured hams. Sensory analyses only showed differences between AG and HO Iberian dry-cured hams in pastiness (higher in AG hams, p = 0.039) and marbling (lower in AG hams, p = 0.002). Pig feeding also leads to differences in two computational texture features obtained by MRI-based analysis. Thus, analysis of the fatty acid profile and MRI-based analysis might be used for classifying dry-cured hams from pigs fattened with different diets.     

Influence of betaine and conjugated linoleic acid on development of carcass cuts of Iberian pigs growing from 20 to 50 kg body weight

Twenty Iberian gilts (20 kg body weight, BW) were fed diets containing no betaine or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (Control), 0.5% betaine, 1% CLA, or 0.5% betaine+1% CLA. Additionally, 5 pigs were killed at 20 kg BW for the initial points of the allometric equations. At 50 kg BW, left semicarcasses were cut into primal cuts, hams and shoulders trimmed and dissected. CLA alone did not affect any analyzed parameter. Betaine increased (23 and 21%, respectively) the yield of shoulder butt and spine and decreased allometric growth coefficient of belly and backfat, compared to Control diet. Tenderloins and trimmed hams of pigs fed CLA+betaine diet developed later and were heavier (22 and 5%, respectively) than Control pigs. Also, leaf fat developed earlier and had lighter weight (32%). Furthermore, pigs fed CLA+betaine diet had heavier lean (5%) and fat free lean (6%) of shoulders compared to Control pigs.