An ecological perspective on smoking among Asian American college students: The roles of social smoking and smoking motives.

Using electronic diaries, the present study examined the roles of social smoking and smoking motives in relation to cigarette use patterns among Asian American college smokers. Multilevel modeling results showed that participants smoked more cigarettes when smoking with peers than when smoking alone. Participants' coping (but not social) motives moderated the within-person associations between smoking with peers and the cigarettes smoked during a smoking episode. The findings support the utility of an ecological perspective in examining the dynamic interaction between smoking motives and the social settings of cigarette use, and call for further research on the social smoking behaviors in diverse populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking behavior and smoking history of tobacco chippers.

Nicotine produces dependence in almost all cigarette smokers. 65 chippers (anomalous smokers who smoke regularly but at very low levels [1–5 cigarettes/day]) were compared with 72 matched regular smokers (20–40 cigarettes/day). Despite having smoked an average of 46,000 cigarettes in 19 yrs of smoking, chippers demonstrated little sign of nicotine dependence. They reported frequent casual abstinence from smoking without withdrawal symptoms, smoked their 1st cigarette of the day hours after waking, and scored low on a modified Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire, a measure of tobacco dependence. Although most chippers had never smoked heavily, a small subgroup of chippers reported previous extended periods of heavy smoking, which suggests that some people may be able to overcome dependence while continuing to smoke. These "converted chippers" could not be distinguished from "native chippers" on the basis of their current smoking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of smoking outside workplaces on non-regular smokers

The introduction of workplace smoking bans has resulted in smokers smoking outside their workplaces (exiled smoking). Social identity theory postulates that this may cause antagonism between smokers and non-smokers, or where non-smokers were friends with smokers, pressure on non-smokers to smoke. This study examines perceptions and beliefs about exiled smoking in 166 non-smoking workers. They saw smokers as having a work benefit not available to them, but otherwise they were generally not drawn to the activity. Half had joined smokers outside for breaks, but of these only one-third had ever smoked. Those would smoked reported that they did not have a regular pattern of joining the same group of smokers. Although it may provide a conduit for susceptible non-smokers to take up smoking, exiled smoking does not appear to influence those who are not otherwise vulnerable.     

Prospective study of effect of switching from cigarettes to pipes or cigars on mortality from three smoking related diseases

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the extent to which cigarette smokers who switch to cigars or pipes alter their risk of dying of three-smoking related diseases-lung cancer, ischaemic heart disease, and chronic obstructive lung disease. DESIGN: A prospective study of 21520 men aged 35-64 years when recruited in 1975-82 with detailed history of smoking and measurement of carboxyhaemoglobin. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Notification of deaths (to 1993) classified by cause. RESULTS: Pipe and cigar smokers who had switched from cigarettes over 20 years before entry to the study smoked less tobacco than cigarette smokers (8.1 g/day v 20 g/day), but they had the same consumption as pipe and cigar smokers who had never smoked cigarettes (8.1 g) and had higher carboxyhaemoglobin saturations (1.2% v 1.0%, P < 0.001), indicating that they inhaled tobacco smoke to a greater extent. They had a 51% higher risk of dying of the three smoking related diseases than pipe or cigar smokers who had never smoked cigarettes (relative risk 1.51; 95% confidence interval 0.96 to 2.38), a 68% higher risk than lifelong non-smokers (1.68; 1.16 to 2.45), a 57% higher risk than former cigarette smokers who gave up smoking over 20 years before entry (1.57; 1.04 to 2.38), and a 46% lower risk than continuing cigarette smokers (0.54; 0.38 to 0.77). CONCLUSION: Cigarette smokers who have difficulty in giving up smoking altogether are better off changing to cigars or pipes than continuing to smoke cigarettes. Much of the effect is due to the reduction in the quantity of tobacco smoked, and some is due to inhaling less. Men who switch do not, however, achieve the lower risk of pipe and cigar smokers who have never smoked cigarettes. All pipe and cigar smokers have a greater risk of lung cancer than lifelong non-smokers or former smokers.     

Partner smoking status and pregnant smoker's perceptions of support for and likelihood of smoking cessation.

Perceptions of support for cessation of smoking during pregnancy, likelihood of quitting, and partner smoking status were explored in a sample of 688 pregnant smokers (372 baseline smokers and 316 baseline quitters). Women with nonsmoking partners were significantly more likely to be baseline quitters than women with partners who smoked. Baseline quitters reported significantly more positive support from their partners than did continuing smokers (p?=?.02). Neither partner smoking status nor partner support at baseline was associated with cessation or relapse later in pregnancy. Women reported greater support, both positive and negative, from nonsmoking partners than from partners who smoked (p?=?.001). Among partner smokers, those who were trying to quit were perceived to be particularly supportive. Cessation interventions for expectant fathers may increase pregnant women's success at quitting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Regular smokers, lifetime very light smokers, and reduced smokers: Comparison of psychosocial and smoking characteristics in women.

This study compared stable very light smokers ([VLS]; less than 6 cigarettes a day) with regular smokers ([RS]; greater than 14 cigarettes a day) in a cohort of women followed up for 1 yr. The VLS showed evidence of inhaling the cigarette smoke. They were not novice smokers, nor were they under particular pressure to limit their smoking. Among the 61 VLS, 34 had at one time smoked more than 10 cigarettes per day. These "reduced smokers" were broadly similar to the lifetime VLS, who differed from RS in several important respects. In a multiple logistic regression, education and smoking patterns in relatives were independently associated with very light versus regular smoking. Familial factors and personal resources may protect against dependence among those who use tobacco. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In smoke's way: Socioemotional reactions to another's smoking.

Assessed the immediate impact of second-hand cigarette smoke on interpersonal attraction and personal feelings. 75 US Army and Air Force enlisted men who were either nonsmokers or smokers and who either refrained or indulged during the session interacted with a stranger who either did not smoke, smoked courteously, or smoked discourteously. Following the encounter, Ss rated the other person on several evaluative dimensions and also rated their own affective state. Nonsmoking Ss made more favorable evaluations and reported a more pleasant affective experience after interacting with a nonsmoking stranger as compared to either a courteous or a discourteous smoker. Smoking Ss who refrained made their most positive ratings in the presence of a courteous smoking other and their most negative ratings in the company of a discourteous one. In contrast to both nonsmokers and smokers who refrained, smokers who indulged during the session made the most favorable ratings when exposed to an indiscriminant smoking stranger. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Demographic factors in adult smoking status: Mediating and moderating influences.

In the current study mediators and moderators of demographic factors in smoking behavior were examined. Those with low education levels were more likely to smoke, believed less in the negative health effects of smoking, believed more in the positive psychological benefits of smoking, had lower value on a healthy lifestyle, and had more friends who smoked. Although all of these factors significantly mediated education effects on smoking, number of friends who smoke was the most powerful of these mediators. There were no gender differences in smoking rates. However, compared with men, smoking among women was more strongly related to perceived psychological benefits of smoking, number of friends who smoke, and health beliefs about smoking. Implications for targeting intervention at less educated individuals and women are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of smoking on the urine excretion of oral 51Cr EDTA in ulcerative colitis

BACKGROUND: Smokers have a reduced risk and ex-smokers an increased risk of ulcerative colitis (UC). Stopping smoking often precedes onset and relapses. Smoking reduces the 24 hour urine excretion of oral chromium-51 labelled EDTA in healthy individuals. AIMS: To estimate the effects of smoking on the urine excretion of oral 51Cr EDTA in well characterised patients with UC. SUBJECTS: Sixteen smoking and 16 non-smoking patients with UC in remission were studied. The non-smokers had never smoked. Most were taking 5-aminosalicylic acid. No patient took steroids or immunosuppressants. The control group comprised 25 smoking healthy volunteers and 25 who had never smoked. The median cigarette consumption was equal in the patients and volunteers. METHODS: The 24 hour urine excretion of oral 51Cr EDTA was measured and the results were correlated with smoking habits, number of cigarettes, and disease extent. RESULTS: Patients with UC had significantly higher 24 hour urine recoveries than healthy controls (p = 0.04). This difference was more pronounced when patients who smoked were compared with healthy smokers (p = 0.005) No significant differences were found when comparing non-smoking patients with non-smoking controls or when comparing smoking and non-smoking patients. Urine recoveries did not correlate with number of cigarettes or disease extent. Smoking was more prevalent in patients with a more limited disease extent (p = 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Effects of smoking on the urine excretion of 51Cr EDTA in health were abolished by the presence of UC. The protective effects of smoking in established UC are not due to a moderating effect of smoking on intestinal permeability.     

Paced smoking in the laboratory and in the natural smoking setting: differential situation-specific effects in light and heavy smokers

The present study examined the situation-specific effects of smoking using a paced regimen of smoking to control the smoke intake. The subjects were first required to sham smoke and then actually smoke one of their cigarettes in two different test contexts: 1) in the laboratory where they had never previously smoked and 2) at home, alone in a quiet room where they regularly smoke. Light (< 10 cigarettes/day) and heavy smokers (> 15 cigarettes/day) were studied to test for a possible effect of the paced regimen itself. In the light smokers, smoking produced a larger increase in heart rate (HR) in the laboratory than in the natural smoking environment; however, in the heavy smokers the smoking had a larger effect in the normal smoking environment than in the laboratory. There were no significant group or test situation differences for baseline HR, skin conductance and finger temperature. The groups also did not differ in the intensity of drawing on the cigarette or inhaling, as indicated by a puff sensor and a respiratory belt, respectively. It was concluded that differences between the effects of a cigarette in a laboratory setting and in a natural smoking environment may reflect pharmacodynamic effects of smoking that are modified by the subjects' prior experience with smoking. The data are discussed with regard to conditioned tolerance to the effect of smoking.     

Cigarette smoking, nicotine addiction, and relaxation.

Shock endurance was used to measure the amount of anxiety experienced in a stressful situation by nonsmokers, smokers allowed to smoke cigarettes containing low levels or moderately high levels of nicotine, and smokers not allowed to smoke. Ss were 51 university students. Smokers deprived of cigarettes and those who smoked cigarettes containing low levels of nicotine behaved more anxiously than nonsmokers and Ss allowed to smoke high-nicotine cigarettes, but the high-nicotine smokers behaved no less anxiously than nonsmokers. Results support the hypothesis that the calming effect of smoking is due to the action of nicotine in ending withdrawal symptoms in addicted smokers rather than to a sedative property of cigarette smoking. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A prospective study of cigarette smoking initiation during college: Chinese and Korean American students.

Objective: The present study was a prospective investigation of baseline influences on initial smoking and transition to established smoking among college students who had not smoked prior to college. Design: Included were 267 participants in a longitudinal study of tobacco use. Students of Chinese (52%) or Korean (48%) descent were enrolled during their freshman year in college. Data for the present study were collected during four annual in-person interviews. Main outcome measures: (1) Initial use of a cigarette reflected having first smoked a cigarette (more than a puff) during college. (2) Established smoking was defined as having smoked at least 100 cigarettes. Results: Over the course of the study, 25% of baseline never-smokers tried their first cigarette, and 9% became established smokers. Overall, men were significantly more likely to experiment and progress to established smoking. Baseline alcohol and drug use, behavioral undercontrol, and parental smoking predicted smoking experimentation but not established smoking. Students of Korean ethnicity were more likely to become established smokers. However, acculturation was not a significant predictor of experimentation or established smoking after accounting for the effects of other predictors. Conclusion: These findings suggest a need for efforts to prevent smoking uptake among Asian American college students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The asbestos worker who smokes: Adding insult to injury.

Evaluated differences among 129 asbestos workers who currently smoke cigarettes or who choose not to smoke on demographic, personality, psychological, and cognitive measures. Smoking was related exclusively to cognitive factors. Although current smokers were cognitively aware of their added health risk, in comparison to past smokers and Ss who had never smoked, they minimized the salience of awareness by fatalistically attributing their health to chance factors and by minimizing the dangers of smoking, the benefits of smoking cessation, and their own increased vulnerability to life-threatening illnesses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of smoking on bone mass and the rates of bone loss among elderly Japanese-American men

Bone density and bone loss rates were examined among Japanese-American men categorized as current cigarette smokers, past smokers, and nonsmokers. The design included a retrospective study of smoking and bone density and a prospective study of current smoking and bone loss rates. The mean length of follow-up was 5 years; the setting was the island of Oahu. The subjects included 1303 men in the Hawaii Osteoporosis Study, 51-82 years old at their initial examination. Twenty percent were current smokers, 45% past smokers, and 35% had never smoked. Their bone density was measured at the distal and proximal radius and calcaneus using single photon absorptiometry. Compared with never smokers, current and past smokers had significantly lower bone density, especially in the predominantly cancellous calcaneus (4.8 and 4.3% lower, respectively) and partially trabecular distal radius (1.8 and 3.3% lower, respectively). The magnitude of the smoking effect was linked strongly to the duration of smoking and also to the number of cigarettes smoked. Bone loss rates subsequent to the initial measurement were greater in the current smokers than the never smokers (20.5, 27.2, and 9.7% greater at the calcaneus, distal, and proximal radius, respectively) but the differences did not achieve significance. Smokers of more than one pack per day had 32.0, 77.6, and 30.7% greater loss rates than never smokers in these same sites; the difference achieved significance at the distal radius. The results from the distal radius suggest that these smokers may increase their fracture risk 10-30% per decade of smoking. The adverse effects of smoking appeared to be greater in cancellous than cortical bone.     

Identifying trajectories of adolescent smoking: An application of latent growth mixture modeling.

The goal of the current study was to identify discrete longitudinal patterns of change in adolescent smoking using latent growth mixture modeling. Five distinct longitudinal patterns were identified. A group of early rapid escalators was characterized by early escalation (at age 13) that rapidly increased to heavy smoking. A pattern characterized by occasional puffing up until age 15, at which time smoking escalated to moderate levels was also identified (late moderate escalators). Another group included adolescents who, after age 15, began to escalate slowly in their smoking to light (0.5 cigarettes per month) levels (late slow escalators). Finally, a group of stable light smokers (those who smoked 1–2 cigarettes per month) and a group of stable puffers (those who smoked only a few puffs per month) were also identified. The stable puffer group was the largest group and represented 25% of smokers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of smoking on pancreatic function in man

A combination secretin-Lundh test was performed on 14 healthy established smokers to determine if smoking inhibited pancreatic secretion and therefore might contribute to the production of a duodenal ulcer. Seven of the patients studied smoked more than 20 cigarettes per day and were classified "heavy smokers". The remaining seven patients smoked less than 20 cigarettes per day and were classified "light to moderate smokers". The volume and bicarbonate output of the pancreas were lowered in both groups of patients after smoking one cigarette. This apparent side effect of nicotine may possibly play an important role in the production of duodenal ulcers in smokers by producing an acid milieu in the duodenum. Tryptic activity was unaffected by smoking.     

Alcohol, smoking, and cataracts: the Blue Mountains Eye Study

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the associations between alcohol consumption, tobacco smoking, and cataract. DESIGN: A population-based, cross-sectional study. SETTING: An urban community in the Blue Mountains, close to Sydney, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: Three thousand six hundred fifty-four people aged 49 to 97 years. The participation rate was 82%. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Smoking history and details of current alcohol consumption were assessed by questionnaire. Lens photographs were taken and graded for presence and severity of cortical, nuclear, and posterior subcapsular cataracts. RESULTS: After adjusting for multiple potential confounders, people who had ever smoked cigarettes had a higher prevalence than nonsmokers of more severe nuclear (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.3; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-1.6) and posterior subcapsular (adjusted OR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.1-2.1) cataracts. The association between pipe smoking and nuclear cataract (adjusted OR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.5-8.2) was stronger than the association with cigarette smoking. Alcohol consumption was associated with a reduced prevalence of cortical cataract: compared with people who did not drink, the adjusted OR for cortical cataract among people who drank at least 1 drink a day was 0.7 (95% CI, 0.6-0.9). Heavy alcohol consumption (> or =4 drinks a day) was associated with nuclear cataract in current smokers (adjusted OR compared with nondrinkers, 3.9; 95% CI, 0.9-16.6) but not in never smokers. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with other studies, smoking was associated with a higher prevalence of nuclear and posterior subcapsular cataracts. The only adverse effect of alcohol was among smokers: people who smoked and drank heavily had an increased prevalence of nuclear cataract.     

Optimizing smoking cessation strategies

Smoking cigarettes remains the leading cause of preventable illnesses and premature deaths in the United States. Although approximately half of living Americans who have ever smoked have quit, recent studies show that more than 70% of current smokers would like to stop smoking. Health care providers can enhance smoking cessation in their clients by performing assessments of both the physical and psychologic addictive aspects of smoking as well as past and current cessation barriers. Based on the assessment, the clinician should formulate a treatment plan by individualizing appropriate education, counseling, motivation, and pharmacologic support. This article reviews the prevalence and hazards of smoking and supplies health care providers with interventions to assist clients in becoming and remaining nonsmokers.     

Long-term psychological sequelae of smoking cessation and relapse.

The authors examined whether smoking cessation and relapse were associated with changes in stress, negative affect, and smoking-related beliefs. Quitters showed decreasing stress, increasing negative health beliefs about smoking, and decreasing beliefs in smoking's psychological benefits. Quitters became indistinguishable from stable nonsmokers in stress and personalized health beliefs, but quitters maintained stronger beliefs in the psychological benefits of smoking than stable nonsmokers. Relapse was not associated with increases in stress or negative affect. However, relapsers increased their positive beliefs about smoking and became indistinguishable from smokers in their beliefs. For quitters, decreased stress and negative beliefs about smoking may help maintain successful cessation. However, for relapsers, declining health risk perceptions may undermine future quit attempts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence that suggests a negative association between cigarette smoking and learning performance

The results of this study indicate that tobacco smoking may have a deleterious effect on the learning process. One hundred and fifteen male volunteers were assessed on four learning tasks. Those Ss who smoked in excess of 12 cigarettes per day did significantly less well, as a group, than nonsmokers and light smokers on three of the four learning tests.