Landsat-7 ETM+ on-orbit reflective-band radiometric stability and absolute calibration

Launched in April 1999, the Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) instrument is in its sixth year of operation. The ETM+ instrument has been the most stable of any of the Landsat instruments. To date, the best onboard calibration source for the reflective bands has been the Full Aperture Solar Calibrator, a solar-diffuser-based system, which has indicated changes of between 1% to 2% per year in the ETM+ gain for bands 1-4 and 8 and less than 0.5%/year for bands 5 and 7. However, most of this change is believed to be caused by changes in the solar diffuser panel, as opposed to a change in the instrument's gain. This belief is based partially on vicarious calibrations and observations of "invariant sites", hyperarid sites of the Sahara and Arabia. Weighted average slopes determined from these datasets suggest changes of 0.0% to 0.4% per year for bands 1-4 and 8 and 0.4% to 0.5% per year for bands 5 and 7. Absolute calibration of the reflective bands of the ETM+ is consistent with vicarious observations and other sensors generally at the 5% level, though there appear to be some systematic differences.     

Landsat-5 TM and Landsat-7 ETM+ absolute radiometric calibration using the reflectance-based method

The reflectance-based method of vicarious calibration has been used for the absolute radiometric calibration of the Landsat series of sensors since the launch of Landsat-4. The reflectance-based method relies on ground-based measurements of the surface reflectance and atmospheric conditions at a selected test site nearly coincident with the imaging of that site by the sensor of interest. The results of this approach are presented here for Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) and Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+). The data have been collected by two groups, one from the University of Arizona and the other from South Dakota State University. The test sites used by the University of Arizona group for this work are the Railroad Valley Playa, Lunar Lake Playa, and Roach Lake Playa all of which are in Nevada, Ivanpah Playa in California, and White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. The test site for the South Dakota State group is a grass site in Brookings, SD. The gains derived from dates using these sites spanning the period from 1984 to 2003 are presented for TM and for the period of 1999 to 2003 for ETM+. Differences between the two groups are less than the combined uncertainties of the methods, and the data are thus treated as a single dataset. The results of these vicarious data indicate that there has been no degradation apparent in TM since 1995 and in ETM+ since launch. Agreement between the reflectance-based results and the preflight calibration of ETM+ is better than 4% in all bands, and the standard deviation of the average difference indicates a precision of the reflectance-based method on the order of 3%.     

Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper reflective-band radiometric stability

Four aspects of the radiometry of the Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper were characterized over the 20+ year mission lifetime for the six reflective bands: relative gain (the radiometric gain of each detector within a band relative to other detectors in that band), bias, performance of the Internal Calibrator (IC) system, and noise. Relative gain was found to be stable or slowly varying and could be described as a linear function of time for most detectors; the maximum change was approximately 0.5%/year. These relative gain characterizations provide an alternate source of destriping information that, in general, compares favorably with that obtained from currently used scene-specific methods. Much of the variability in instrument bias levels was found to be related to temperature effects; long-term changes in bias levels were less than 0.5 DN overall. The lamp-based IC system, though stable over the short term, showed both individual lamp phenomena and changes in overall behavior that complicated the ability to monitor the system's stability. Using the best behaved lamp and some assumptions about expected lamp behavior, characterization of response with a simple model was achieved through the year 2000. The model shows an initial 5% to 10% decay in response over the first three years of operation, depending on the band. Noise levels and signal-to-noise ratio in the instrument appear to be stable throughout the lifetime.     

Landsat-7 ETM+ on-orbit reflective-band radiometric characterization

The Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) has been and continues to be radiometrically characterized using the Image Assessment System (IAS), a component of the Landsat-7 Ground System. Key radiometric properties analyzed include: overall, coherent, and impulse noise; bias stability; relative gain stability; and other artifacts. The overall instrument noise is characterized across the dynamic range of the instrument during solar diffuser deployments. Less than 1% per year increases are observed in signal-independent (dark) noise levels, while signal-dependent noise is stable with time. Several coherent noise sources exist in ETM+ data with scene-averaged magnitudes of up to 0.4 DN, and a noise component at 20 kHz whose magnitude varies across the scan and peaks at the image edges. Bit-flip noise does not exist on the ETM+. However, impulse noise due to charged particle hits on the detector array has been discovered. The instrument bias is measured every scan line using a shutter. Most bands show less than 0.1 DN variations in bias across the instrument lifetime. The panchromatic band is the exception, where the variation approaches 2 DN and is related primarily to temperature. The relative gains of the detectors, i.e., each detector's gain relative to the band average gain, have been stable to /spl plusmn/0.1% over the mission life. Two exceptions to this stability include band 2 detector 2, which dropped about 1% in gain about 3.5 years after launch and stabilized, and band 7 detector 5, which has changed several tenths of a percent several times since launch. Memory effect and scan-correlated shift, a hysteresis and a random change in bias between multiple states, respectively, both of which have been observed in previous Thematic Mapper sensors, have not been convincingly found in ETM+ data. Two artifacts, detector ringing and "oversaturation", affect a small amount of ETM+ data.     

In-flight absolute calibration of the Landsat-5 TM on the test site Salar de Uyuni

In Brazil, the increase of the application of quantitative approaches in the natural resources studies using remote sensing technology has required knowledge about the radiometric conditions of remote sensors as the Thematic Mapper (TM) and the Enhanced TM Plus, for instance. The establishment of a correlation between radiometric data and biophysical and geophysical ones has become a frequent need in the Brazilian remote sensing community, and it has increased the demand of calibration coefficients in order to transform digital numbers to physical values like radiance and reflectance. Since the China-Brazil Environmental Remote Sensing Satellite became a reality, the necessity to perform calibration campaigns increased significantly. Following Price and other researcher's suggestions, an in-flight absolute calibration of the Landsat-5 data was carried out in the Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia. It was only possible to determine calibration coefficients for bands TM2, TM3, and TM4 due to the saturation of band TM1 and surface moisture conditions that impacted the TM5 and TM7. The methodology applied here seemed to be sufficient to determine valid calibration coefficients for orbital sensors.     

Landsat thematic mapper reflective-band radiometric artifacts

Radiometric "artifacts" are known to be present to varying degrees in the reflective-band imagery from both Landsat-4 and Lansat-5 Thematic Mappers (TMs). The most common artifacts are known as scan-correlated shift (SCS), memory effect (ME), and coherent noise (CN). The characterization and correction of these artifacts has been performed for both the Landsat-4 and Lansat-5 TMs. SCS is a sudden shift in bias that can be as large as 2 DN. However, this artifact can be accurately quantified and easily removed from imagery using a line-by-line bias subtraction. ME causes the detector response to undershoot after a sudden transition from a bright target to a dark target. For large transitions, this can cause a 2% radiometric error. This artifact can be removed through a spatial filtering operation. Lastly, CN is a periodic pattern that is most often seen in homogeneous portions of TM imagery. The amplitude of this noise artifact is quite small, less than 0.5 DN. While CN has been accurately characterized, a correction procedure is not recommended, due to the small amplitude of this artifact. Recommendations are given for proper processing of TM imagery to remove the effects of these artifacts.     

红外相机实时绝对辐射定标技术研究

辐射定标技术是实现定量遥感的关键环节。近年来,随着红外遥测技术愈发成熟,星上红外辐射定标已成为空间定量遥感技术的重要发展方向。文中从红外相机实时绝对辐射定标的背景出发,提出了半光路星上绝对辐射定标和基于多温度场的场地绝对辐射定标方法,结合实验数据,分别采用星上定标、场地定标、交叉定标三种方案进行在轨绝对辐射定标实验验证,并对其适用场景进行了分析。结果表明,通过结合半、全光路定标数据处理和转换技术,利用水面场和陆面场的场地绝对辐射定标方法,优选合适的定标场地,同时在陆面场中增加典型地物场景实现多温度场定标的方法,所提出的辐射定标方法实现了实时高精度绝对辐射定标,定标精度优于1.5 K。     

变积分时间的空间红外相机单点绝对辐射定标法

针对星上多点辐射定标获取方法问题,研究了变积分时间的单点绝对辐射定标方法。首先,根据红外相机响应特性建立了变积分时间的红外成像系统响应模型;其次,分析了变积分时间和变辐射亮度相机响应模型的理论差异,提出了利用星上单点标准变积分时间的红外相机绝对辐射定标方法;最后,结合探测器的光谱响应曲线,分析了变积分时间单点定标法引入的系统误差。实例计算表明:在积分时间为10 ms、温度范围为250～500 K的黑体辐射能量下,对应适当温度的单点标准变积分时间绝对定标方法,引入的最大原理误差可达1.5%。变积分时间的单点绝对定标方法避免了黑体多点定标设计和控制的复杂性,可用于空间红外相机的在轨辐射定标。     

FY-2B热红外通道星上实时绝对辐射定标

选取了2002年6月24日到8月30日00、06、12、18（世界时）的FY-2B卫星云图,获取这段时间青海湖晴空时的图像共34次,并获取其卫星计数值。利用青海湖自动浮标系统测得的水表温度和NCEP再分析资料的大气廓线,利用MODTRAN3.7计算大气层顶辐亮度和亮温,获得FY-2B热红外通道绝对辐射定标系数,从而计算等效黑体温度。同时获取对应时刻的星上黑体温度、计数值以及星上环境温度。据此建立等效黑体温度和星上黑体温度的转换关系,实现静止气象卫星热红外通道星上实时绝对辐射定标。     

基于灰阶靶标的高分辨光学卫星传感器在轨绝对辐射定标

辐射定标是光学卫星传感器遥感信息定量化的关键技术之一。基于多灰阶靶标的星载多光谱相机在轨绝对辐射定标方法,以地面漫射辐射/总辐射比、大气光学厚度等参数的实际测量代替气溶胶散射特性假设,通过参照目标反射辐射与大气程辐射及地气耦合辐射的分离,简化定标流程,并突破大面积辐射校正场受时空条件的限制,实现高分辨率多光谱遥感器全动态范围内的高精度、高频次、业务化定标。试验结果表明:基于灰阶靶标的高分辨光学卫星传感器在轨绝对辐射定标不确定度优于3.5%,与反射率基法定标结果的差异优于5%,且适应于复杂环境条件下在轨定标的应用需求。     

X-SAR radiometric calibration and data quality

In April and October, 1994 the X-SAR was flown as part of the SIR-C/X-SAR space radar laboratory missions (SRL-1/2) on the Space Shuttle. Amongst other activities DLR is responsible for the calibration of all X-SAR data products and is running the German Processing and Archiving Facility (D-PAF). Calibration activities included three major parts. Before the first mission, the authors performed a detailed analysis of the overall system to localize the main error sources and developed algorithms and procedures to correct these errors. During the missions they concentrated their efforts on calibration campaigns at the Oberpfaffenhofen super test site. Post mission activities included the determination of the antenna pattern and the absolute calibration factor as well as detailed performance analyses. This paper describes the overall approach to radiometrically calibrate the X-SAR and provides information on system performance and data quality to users in the different application fields     

A radiometric antenna gain calibration method

A radiometric method is presented for measuring the power gain of a microwave antenna. It is particularly applicable to horns with gains in the range 20-45 dB, and an absolute uncertainty (3sigma) of less than 0.1 dB is achievable in favorable cases. An absorbing screen with a circular aperture is placed in the far-field of the test antenna. The diameter of the aperture is chosen to subtend an angle much smaller than the main lobe of the radiation pattern of the test antenna. Then two sheets of microwave absorber (one at ambient temperature and the other cooled to the boiling point of liquid nitrogen) are alternately placed first behind the screen aperture and then, for normalization, across the aperture of the test horn. The ratio of the antenna temperature differences measured with a sensitive microwave radiometer is proportional to the effective antenna solid angle, and thus its directivity. Corrections must be applied for near-field effects, diffraction at the screen aperture, partial resolution of the screen aperture by the main lobe of the test antenna pattern, and ohmic losses. A comparison of black disk measurements using a large conical horn at 86 GHz with theoretical calculations confirms the accuracy of this gain calibration technique.     

Absolute radiometric calibration of the CCRS SAR

Determining the radar scattering coefficients from SAR (synthetic aperture radar) image data requires absolute radiometric calibration of the SAR system. The authors describe an internal calibration methodology for the airborne Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) SAR system, based on radar theory, a detailed model of the radar system, and measurements of system parameters. The methodology is verified by analyzing external calibration data acquired over a six-month period in 1988 by the C-band radar using HH polarization. The results indicate that the overall error is ±0.8 dB (1σ) for incidence angles ±20° from antenna boresight. The dominant error contributions are due to the antenna radome and uncertainties in the elevation angle relative to the antenna boresight     

Landsat-5 bumper-mode geometric correction

The Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) scan mirror was switched from its primary operating mode to a backup mode in early 2002 in order to overcome internal synchronization problems arising from long-term wear of the scan mirror mechanism. The backup bumper mode of operation removes the constraints on scan start and stop angles enforced in the primary scan angle monitor operating mode, requiring additional geometric calibration effort to monitor the active scan angles. It also eliminates scan timing telemetry used to correct the TM scan geometry. These differences require changes to the geometric correction algorithms used to process TM data. A mathematical model of the scan mirror's behavior when operating in bumper mode was developed. This model includes a set of key timing parameters that characterize the time-varying behavior of the scan mirror bumpers. To simplify the implementation of the bumper-mode model, the bumper timing parameters were recast in terms of the calibration and telemetry data items used to process normal TM imagery. The resulting geometric performance, evaluated over 18 months of bumper-mode operations, though slightly reduced from that achievable in the primary operating mode, is still within the Landsat specifications when the data are processed with the most up-to-date calibration parameters.     

视频卫星在轨相对辐射定标方法

视频卫星利用敏捷姿态性能对地凝视成像,实现对目标的动态监测。为了消除视频卫星获取时序图像中由探测元件响应差异引起的非均匀性,获得清晰的图像和准确的辐射信息,需要针对视频卫星传感器进行相对辐射定标。由于成像机理不同,基于统计的在轨辐射定标方法并不适用于视频卫星,提出采用均匀场景的视频卫星在轨相对辐射定标方法,分别对云层、海洋和沙漠三种典型的均匀场景进行凝视视频成像,解算相对辐射定标系,其中,沙漠场景的处理取得了较好的相对辐射定标系数,校正吉林一号视频单帧影像。该方法能够有效修复图像缺陷,图像的非均匀性由3.7%降低至1.2%。     

Four years of Landsat-7 on-orbit geometric calibration and performance

Unlike its predecessors, Landsat-7 has undergone regular geometric and radiometric performance monitoring and calibration since launch in April 1999. This ongoing activity, which includes issuing quarterly updates to calibration parameters, has generated a wealth of geometric performance data over the four-year on-orbit period of operations. A suite of geometric characterization (measurement and evaluation procedures) and calibration (procedures to derive improved estimates of instrument parameters) methods are employed by the Landsat-7 Image Assessment System to maintain the geometric calibration and to track specific aspects of geometric performance. These include geodetic accuracy, band-to-band registration accuracy, and image-to-image registration accuracy. These characterization and calibration activities maintain image product geometric accuracy at a high level-by monitoring performance to determine when calibration is necessary, generating new calibration parameters, and verifying that new parameters achieve desired improvements in accuracy. Landsat-7 continues to meet and exceed all geometric accuracy requirements, although aging components have begun to affect performance.     

Geometric and radiometric correction of TM data of mountainousforested areas

Methodologies to improve Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper) forest classifications of alpine regions through the removal of some radiometric and geometric distortions are tested. Besides correcting for sensor and system induced errors, geometric errors are corrected using a digital elevation model. Then scene-related effects such as differences in illumination as well as the height dependent atmospheric influence and adjacency effects are corrected. The improvement of the accuracy of a forest classification is demonstrated by comparison with ground truth data     

Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper outgassing effects

A periodic 3% to 5% variation in detector response affecting both image and internal calibrator (IC) data has been observed in bands 5 and 7 of the Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper. The source for this variation is thought to be an interference effect due to buildup of an ice-like contaminant film on a ZnSe window, covered with an antireflective coating (ARC), of the cooled Dewar containing these detectors. Periodic warming of the dewar is required in order to remove the contaminant and restore detector response to an uncontaminated level. These effects in the IC data have been characterized over four individual outgassing cycles using thin-film models to estimate transmittance of the window/ARC and ARC/contaminant film stack throughout the instrument lifetime. Based on the results obtained from this modeling, a lookup table procedure has been implemented that provides correction factors to improve the calibration accuracy of bands 5 and 7 by approximately 5%.     

FY-3A中分辨率光谱成像仪红外通道辐射定标的场地评估

对比分析了基于场地观测数据模拟的和FY-3A 中分辨率光谱成像仪(MERSI)红外通道星上定标观测卫星入瞳亮温值。主要的场地观测数据来自于2008、2009年青海湖以及2010年敦煌外场同步观测和2008、2009年青海湖浮标观测。利用光学仪器的同步观测数据共有7组有效结果,两年的青海湖有效浮标数据一共18组。通过对比分析发现,MERSI观测结果基本都在夜间低于浮标同步观测结果,而白天偏高。综合与场地同步和浮标的对比结果发现,MERSI星上定标观测亮温值系统性偏高于基于场地观测数据模拟的亮温值,平均偏高1.721.18 K。MERSI星上定标观测亮温值的系统性偏高可能主要由星上黑体发射率未经过修正引起。     

应用U形边框黑体光阑的三点辐射定标校正方法及其分析

红外焦平面探测器阵列由于探测器工艺、环境冲击和长时间工作等因素将引起探测器响应的漂移,很大程度影响了热成像系统的成像质量。对于红外测温热像仪来说,会大大降低其出厂定标的准确性。针对红外辐射定标,考虑到探测器响应的非线性,在前期搭建的基于U形边框黑体视场光阑的红外成像系统基础上,研究了基于U形边框黑体光阑的三点定标修正方法,并与两点辐射定标方法进行了比较。实际定标测试实验结果表明:在25~65 ℃范围内,三点定标修正后的最大绝对误差和平均误差分别为0.126 6 K和-0.048 8 K,较原始定标的结果有明显的精度提升,说明三点定标修正方法算法有效,但三点定标修正与两点定标修正的结果相差不大。因此,一般情况下两点辐射定标修正方法足以适应辐射定标应用。