Sex and ethnic differences in the use of power.

Hypothesized that women and Chicanos would make less internal and more external attributions for their own successful performance than would Anglo males. 40 Chicano male, 40 Chicano female, 40 Anglo male, and 40 Anglo female undergraduates participated as managers in an industrial simulation study. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions: designated powers vs unspecified powers, and supervision of male or female workers. Following the managerial task, Ss completed a questionnaire assessing their own performance and that of their workers. All Anglos devalued their workers as a function of controlling power and attributed workers' performance to external factors. All Ss tended to use their power to persuade workers. Males attempted to influence workers to a greater degree than did females. The predicted sex differences in terms of attribution were evident only among Anglos. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Common errors in psychotherapy with Chicanos: Extrapolations from research and clinical experience.

Explicates errors that lead to the underutilization of psychotherapy by Chicanos and errors that therapists are likely to make in working with Chicano patients. Underutilization of psychotherapy is related to the erroneous judgment that the Chicano culture and psychotherapy are incompatible and to the error of looking to the patient variable rather than to the therapist variable as a major factor. The errors in treatment of Chicanos include a tendency to overdiagnose psychopathology, a misunderstanding of the cultural differences relating to formality and personalization of professional relationships, confusion about differences in coping styles, a superficial grasp of the concept of machismo, the misperception of Chicanos as a homogeneous group, and anxiety on the part of the Anglo therapists about topics such as dependency, competition, and sexism. Ways to reduce the errors are offered. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control in Mexicans and Chicanos: The case of the missing fatalist.

Studied the extent to which a stereotype of Mexican or Chicano students as fatalistic is supported by their locus of control scores. Data came from Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale scores of male college students in 4 nations: US (86), Mexico (57), Ireland (47), and West Germany (54). Data show the Mexican Ss to be significantly more internally oriented than Ss from each of the other nations. Locus of control scores (determined with a scale developed by H. Levenson, 1974) for 151 Anglo and 95 Chicano senior high school students were also compared. Scores for Chicanos were nearly identical to those obtained from Anglo students. Only Chicano male high school students not planning to enter college showed any tendency toward a more external locus of control. It is concluded that to the extent a perceived external locus of control would be indicative of a fatalistic outlook, such perception is lacking in most data in Mexican and Chicano respondents. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

WISC-R factor structures among Anglos, Blacks, Chicanos, and Native-American Papagos.

Compared WISC-R factor structures for Anglo, Black, Chicano, and Native-American Papago children from Pima County, Arizona. The samples were randomly selected from school enrollment rosters and stratified by ethnicity, grade level (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th), sex, and urban–rural residence (950 Ss). Application of 2 objective procedures for determining the appropriate number of factors for each group suggested a 3-factor solution for Anglos, a 2- or 3-factor solution for Chicanos depending on procedure used, and 2-factor solutions for Blacks and Native-American Papagos. The 2-factor solutions were highly similar for the 4 groups. The 3-factor solutions were similar for Anglos and Chicanos but were substantially different for the other groups. The groups were highly similar in terms of the proportion of variance accounted for by a general factor, and the Verbal–Performance scale distinction appeared equally appropriate for all groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic group perceptions of mental health service providers.

Assessed 121 male and 118 female Chicano, 124 male and 123 female Black, and 126 male and 125 female Anglo college students' perceptions of 100 characteristics of 6 service-provider groups and the likelihood that Ss would discuss 9 problem areas with professional groups. Analysis revealed main effects for race, sex, and provider groups; factor analysis of the 9 problem topics revealed personal-social and educational-vocational dimensions. Females were more likely than males to discuss both problem areas with provider groups. Blacks and Chicanos were more likely than Anglos to take personal problems to professionals. Ss preferred to consult psychiatrists and clinical psychologists for the same types of problems more than counseling psychologists, who in turn were preferred more than college counselors, high school counselors, and advisers. For educational-vocational concerns, Ss generally expressed a stronger probability of consulting providers other than psychiatrists and clinical psychologists. Methodological issues, previous findings, and implications for service providers are discussed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of breast cancer on Asian American and Anglo American women

This pilot study constitutes the first exploration of the impact of breast cancer on Asian American women. Three hypotheses guided this study: (1) Asian American women would choose breast conserving therapy and breast reconstruction at a lower rate than the Anglo American women due to cultural differences in body image, (2) Asian American women with breast cancer would express psychological distress somatically and Anglo American women would express distress emotionally, and acculturation levels of the Asian American women would modify the expressions of distress such that women with high acculturation will express distress more emotionally and less acculturated women would express distress more somatically, and (3) Asian American women would seek assistance for psychosocial problems at a significantly lower rate than Anglo women. Ethnicity, age, and levels of acculturation were found to be significant variables that had to be considered simultaneously. The three hypotheses were only partially supported: (1) Asian American women chose breast conserving therapy and adjuvant therapy at a significantly lower rate than the Anglo American women, (2) Contrary to the hypothesis, somatization did not appear to be a dominant form of symptom presentation for Asian American women regardless of level of acculturation, and (3) Asian American women sought professional assistance for psychosocial problems at a significantly lower rate than Anglo women. Asian American women reported using different modes of help-seeking behavior for emotional concerns and receiving different sources of social support than the Anglo American women. Cultural interpretations of the findings are offered to explain the differences in the physical, emotional, and social responses to the breast cancer experience of Asian American women compared with the Anglo Americans, and notably between the Chinese- and Japanese Americans as well. The findings of this study warrant more refined exploration in order to improve the medical, psychological and social outcomes for Asian American women with breast cancer.     

Maternal teaching strategies and cognitive styles in Chicano families.

Hypotheses derived from field-dependence theory were tested for (a) the role that cognitive styles play in determining maternal teaching strategies, (b) the role of these strategies in children's development of cognitive style, and (c) the emergence of cognitive styles in Chicano children. 43 Chicano mothers were observed teaching their own 5-yr-old children. As measures of field dependence/independence, mothers were given the Embedded Figures Test and the Block Design subtest of the WAIS; children were tested with the Children's Embedded Figures Test and the Block Design subtest of the WISC. Relatively field-independent mothers used inquiry and praise as teaching strategies, and field-dependent mothers used modeling. Trends suggest that the teaching strategies to which the child is exposed may influence which cognitive style the child develops. The data provide evidence of construct validity for Chicano women and suggest that at age 5, field dependence/field independence begins to emerge as a coherent construct in Chicano children. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal teaching strategies and cognitive styles in Chicano families: Correction to Laosa.

The article "Maternal Strategies and Cognitive Styles in Chicano Families" by Luis M. Laosa (Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 72, No. 1, 45-54) contains an error. On page 48 in the third sentence of the third paragraph in the right-hand column, the sentence should read "Ratio scores are computed by dividing raw frequencies by observation time." (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1980-20784-001.) Hypotheses derived from field-dependence theory were tested for (a) the role that cognitive styles play in determining maternal teaching strategies, (b) the role of these strategies in children's development of cognitive style, and (c) the emergence of cognitive styles in Chicano children. 43 Chicano mothers were observed teaching their own 5-yr-old children. As measures of field dependence/independence, mothers were given the Embedded Figures Test and the Block Design subtest of the WAIS; children were tested with the Children's Embedded Figures Test and the Block Design subtest of the WISC. Relatively field-independent mothers used inquiry and praise as teaching strategies, and field-dependent mothers used modeling. Trends suggest that the teaching strategies to which the child is exposed may influence which cognitive style the child develops. The data provide evidence of construct validity for Chicano women and suggest that at age 5, field dependence/field independence begins to emerge as a coherent construct in Chicano children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love-styles among Latino community college students in Los Angeles

145 Latino community college students enrolled in Chicano Studies classes in Los Angeles, California were administered a love-attitudes scale. Analysis showed that the mean scores and endorsement patterns were similar to those in earlier research on white-Latino and white-non-Latino students in the United States. Significant gender differences were found. Latino men scored more Ludic and Agapic than women. Researchers might examine the love-styles and ethnic identity in and out of marriage among Latinos, whites, and Asians in southern California.     

The influence of knowledge and attitudes about breast cancer on mammography use among Latinas and Anglo women

We conducted a telephone survey of randomly selected Latinas (n = 208) and Anglo women (n = 222) to determine predictors of mammography use. The cooperation rate was 78.5%. Relatively high proportions of Latinas (61%) and Anglo women (79%) reported mammography use within the past 2 years. A logistic regression analysis revealed that knowledge and attitudes did not independently predict use. On the other hand, having health insurance, being married, and being Latino were consistent independent predictors. We conclude that mammography use among Latinas and Anglo women is increasing. However, further gains in use must address difficult barriers such as lack of health insurance.     

Gender and exercise behavior among women and men with osteoarthritis

The purposes of this study were to determine differences between women and men with osteoarthritis in (1) amount and type of exercise behavior; (2) the demographic, psychosocial, health status, and personality correlates of exercise behavior; and (3) the relationship between exercise and health care utilization. Participants were 70 male and 126 female members of a large health maintenance organization who were 60 years of age or older and had osteoarthritis. Results indicated fewer women than men exercised, but among those who exercised, no significant differences in the [amount and type of exercise] behavior were found. Walking was the most frequently reported form of exercise among both women and men. To clarify which variables were related to exercise within each gender, regression analyses were performed separately on the total sample first, and then on women and men separately. In the total sample, age, quality of well-being, and extroversion were significantly related to exercise. Extroversion was significantly related to exercise among men. Helplessness and quality of well-being were significantly related to exercise among women. Exercise was not significantly related to health care service utilization. Results in this study underscore the importance of separating women and men in examination of variables related to exercise behavior.     

From ethnography to intervention: developing a breast cancer control program for Latinas

Latinas are less likely than Anglo women to have appropriate breast cancer screening for reasons that may include culturally based beliefs as well as socioeconomic factors. This study employed ethnographic methods to explore breast cancer-related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors among Latinas, Anglo women, and physicians, tested the generalizability of the findings in a telephone survey of randomly selected women, and used the results to design a culturally sensitive breast cancer control intervention in Orange County, Calif. Respondents for the ethnographic interviews included 28 Salvadoran immigrants, 39 Mexican immigrants, 27 Chicanas (U.S.-born Latinas of Mexican heritage), 27 Anglo women, and 30 physicians selected through organization-based network sampling. Latinas had very different beliefs about risk factors for breast cancer and held more fatalistic attitudes about the disease. For example, they believed that trauma to the breast was among the most important risk factors. Results of a telephone survey of 1225 randomly selected women (269 U.S.-born Latinas, 425 Mexican immigrants, 109 other Latina immigrants, and 422 Anglo women) generally confirmed the dissimilar beliefs among Latinas and Anglo women. The findings influenced our decision to design and pilot-test a breast cancer control intervention based on Bandura's self-efficacy theory and Freire's empowerment pedagogy. The methodology and findings of this study have important implications for future cancer control research and interventions.     

Women and men as organizational development practitioners: An analysis of differences and similarities.

Determined the values, practices, and extent of differences between women and men as organization development (OD) practitioners in the present and in the future. 150 female and 266 male members of 3 industry professional groups completed a questionnaire developed to assess practitioner's values and practices. Results indicate that in general both females and males relied less on traditional social–psychological and group-based methods of consulting and more on interventions aimed at helping organizations achieve their desired future states. In addition, general intervention usage between women and men did not differ significantly. Regarding the values of OD practitioners, findings indicate that women and men have very similar perceptions about what is important in the field today. However, females placed far more importance on humanistic values in OD work for the future than did men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Carnitine measurements in liver, muscle tissue, and blood in normal subjects

We determined carnitine concentrations in blood and in liver and abdominal muscle biopsy specimens in 13 men and 16 women undergoing elective surgery (mostly gallbladder removal). The data suggest that the carnitine pools of plasma and erythrocytes are different. The erythrocytes show a higher acylcarnitine concentration than does plasma (P < 0.001). Several reference bases for values in tissues have been used--dry weight, noncollagen protein (NCP), and DNA--because these may be differently influenced by disease. In liver specimens, the quotient NCP (g)/DNA (g) was significantly higher in men, 54.4 +/- 6.3 (mean +/- SD), than in women, 47.7 +/- 7.0 (P < 0.01). Liver total carnitine content in relation to DNA was significantly higher in men than in women: 0.29 +/- 0.06 vs 0.22 +/- 0.08 mmol/g DNA (P < 0.01). Free carnitine content was significantly higher in men than in women independently of the reference base, e.g., 3.7 +/- 1.0 mumol/g NCP for men vs 2.9 +/- 1.0 for women (P < 0.05). No difference was found between the sexes in the abdominal muscle carnitine content, 20.6 +/- 6.7 mumol/g NCP for men vs 17.9 +/- 5.0 for women. Our study establishes control ranges, thereby providing an important basis for studies of patients with abnormal carnitine metabolism.     

Sex differences in brain regions activated by grammatical and reading tasks

Do the brains of men and women show similar patterns of functional organization for language, or are men more strongly lateralized? We used PET to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) as men and women read real and nonce verbs, and produced past tense forms. While the overall patterns of reaction time, error, and brain activation were similar, there were also significant sex-related differences in CBF patterns. During the past tense generation tasks, men showed left-lateralized activation while women recruited bilateral perisylvian cortex, confirming differences in functional laterality. During all tasks, women showed higher activation in occipital and/or cerebellar regions, suggesting differences in basic reading strategies. We conclude that sex differences in functional cortical organization exist in the absence of significant behavioral differences.     

Are stereotypes of nationalities applied to both women and men?

Stereotypes of women, men, and nationalities of 28 countries were examined to determine the extent to which stereotypes of nationalities are applied to women as well as to men. As expected, stereotypes of the men tended to resemble stereotypes of their nationalities more than did stereotypes of the women. Yet this greater similarity between stereotypes of men and their nationalities than between stereotypes of women and their nationalities was more pronounced to the extent that countries were unfavorably evaluated. Interpretation of these findings followed from a social structural theory of stereotype content and focused on the relative status of women and men in modern nations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inferred sex differences in status as a determinant of gender stereotypes about social influence.

In 3 experiments, 470 male and 425 female university students read a scenario describing a communicator's attempt to influence a recipient and then judged how much influence would occur. The scenarios in Exp I described a man trying to influence a woman or a woman trying to influence a man. For scenarios in which job titles were omitted, Ss believed that women held lower status jobs than men and that women were more likely to comply behaviorally with men than men were with women. For scenarios in which job titles were included, Ss' beliefs about compliance were based on job status rather than the sex of the stimulus persons. In Exp II, scenarios in which job titles were omitted described an influence attempt between same- or opposite-sex persons. Both the communicator's and the recipient's sex were found to contribute to the greater perceived compliance of women to men (vs men to women). In Exp III, this perceived sex difference in compliance occurred only when the communicator and recipient were employed by the same organization. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Content and grammatical sex bias on the Interpersonal Trust Scale and differential trust toward women and men.

Modified the items on the Interpersonal Trust Scale (ITS) to specify the sex of the reference groups to be trusted in order to study possible content and grammatical sex bias in responses to the ITS and to study whether men and women differ in their trust toward men and women. There was clear evidence for both masculine content sex bias and grammatical sex bias in responses by both college men and women (192 and 322 Ss, respectively). The trust scale provides a conservative estimate of trust toward women and indicates a critical need for ITS-trust-toward-women studies. Men and women indicated greater trust toward women than toward men or non-sex-specified referents wherever comparisons were possible. These findings coupled with differences between J. B. Rotter's trust concept and factors of trust on his scale suggest that 2 aspects of trust are sex linked and also suggest the importance of testing the implicit hypothesis that more important trusting decisions are made toward men than toward women. This study extends sex bias research to personality measures, distinguishes 2 new types of sex bias, and provides a methodology for testing the effects of these biases. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male honor and female fidelity: Implicit cultural scripts that perpetuate domestic violence.

Two studies explored how domestic violence may be implicitly or explicitly sanctioned and reinforced in cultures where honor is a salient organizing theme. Three general predictions were supported: (a) female infidelity damages a man's reputation, particularly in honor cultures; (b) this reputation can be partially restored through the use of violence; and (c) women in honor cultures are expected to remain loyal in the face of jealousy-related violence. Study 1 involved participants from Brazil (an honor culture) and the United States responding to written vignettes involving infidelity and violence in response to infidelity. Study 2 involved southern Anglo, Latino, and northern Anglo participants witnessing a "live" incident of aggression against a woman (actually a confederate) and subsequently interacting with her. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Androgyny and leadership in mixed-sex groups.

An investigation of individual differences in psychological androgyny showed that they interacted with situational variables to alter the balance of leadership between 107 men and 107 women undergraduates in small-group discussions, as predicted. Each group was composed of either all androgynous or all sex-typed members. The 9 leadership measures represented process (e.g., minutes of speaking time), content (e.g., number of substantive suggestions), and peer impressions (e.g., leadership ratings). Results indicate that when dyads were reminded about their gender role beliefs before the discussion, androgynous men and women shared leadership more and sex-typed partners less than comparable dyads without reminder, in which men dominated regardless of androgyny. Providing social support by increasing group size from dyads to tetrads (2 men, 2 women) also increased leadership sharing between androgynous men and women and increased male dominance in sex-typed groups. Androgynous and sex-typed friends were more active than strangers but did not differ from comparable strangers in leadership-sharing patterns. Peer recognition of leadership followed behavior only roughly. Some behavioral differences were unrecognized; some differences that did not exist were reported. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)