Induced versus spontaneous attainment of concrete operations and their relationship to school achievement.

Tested whether 3rd grade school achievement can be enhanced by training children to conserve 1 or 2 yrs prior to the time they would be expected to spontaneously conserve substances. Ss were 60 White middle-class 3rd graders who had taken part in conservation training studies when in kindergarten and been designated as trained and early conservers and controls. When Ss entered the 3rd grade they were administered the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test and the Stanford Achievement test. Results show that although the spontaneous early attainment of conservation is a valid predictor of certain areas of school achievement, Ss trained to conserve in kindergarten did not do better in school achievement than their later conserving peers. Findings are interpreted in light of the distribution between learning and development. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does television violence cause aggression?

In a previous study 3rd graders who preferred violent TV programs were rated more aggressive in school by peers. In a 10-yr follow-up, 211 males and 216 females of the original 875 Ss were interviewed as to their television habits and again rated their peers on aggressive behavior. It was found that the violence of programs preferred by male 3rd graders was even more strongly related to aggression 10 yr. later. Cross-lagged correlations, partial correlations, and multiple regression indicate a probable causative influence of watching violent TV programs in early formative years on later aggression. Although TV violence was not the only cause of aggressive behavior, its effect was relatively independent and explained a larger proportion of variance than any other single factor studied, e.g., IQ, social status, ethnicity, and parental disharmony. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early adolescent peer orientation and adjustment during high school.

The long-term consequences of early adolescents' orientation toward peers for their adjustment during high school were assessed. Approximately 1,200 adolescents completed questionnaires in the 7th grade and in the 10th or 12th grades; course grades were also obtained from the students' school records. Early adolescents who were willing to sacrifice their talents, school performance, and parents' rules engaged in greater problem behavior and evidenced lower academic achievement than did other adolescents during high school. The poorer adjustment of adolescents with this extreme orientation toward peers was mediated by their reported involvement in deviant peer groups. In contrast, a tendency to seek advice from peers more than from parents during early adolescence had little implication for later adjustment. Discussion focuses on the need to consider the role of peer dependence along with the effects of supportive friendships during adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early math matters: Kindergarten number competence and later mathematics outcomes.

Children’s number competencies over 6 time points, from the beginning of kindergarten to the middle of 1st grade, were examined in relation to their mathematics achievement over 5 later time points, from the end of 1st grade to the end of 3rd grade. The relation between early number competence and mathematics achievement was strong and significant throughout the study period. A sequential process growth curve model showed that kindergarten number competence predicted rate of growth in mathematics achievement between 1st and 3rd grades as well as achievement level through 3rd grade. Further, rate of growth in early number competence predicted mathematics performance level in 3rd grade. Although low-income children performed more poorly than their middle-income counterparts in mathematics achievement and progressed at a slower rate, their performance and growth were mediated through relatively weak kindergarten number competence. Similarly, the better performance and faster growth of children who entered kindergarten at an older age were explained by kindergarten number competence. The findings show the importance of early number competence for setting children’s learning trajectories in elementary school mathematics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic and emotional functioning in early adolescence: longitudinal relations, patterns, and prediction by experience in middle school

Adopting a motivational perspective on adolescent development, these two companion studies examined the longitudinal relations between early adolescents' school motivation (competence beliefs and values), achievement, emotional functioning (depressive symptoms and anger), and middle school perceptions using both variable- and person-centered analytic techniques. Data were collected from 1041 adolescents and their parents at the beginning of seventh and the end of eight grade in middle school. Controlling for demographic factors, regression analyses in Study 1 showed reciprocal relations between school motivation and positive emotional functioning over time. Furthermore, adolescents' perceptions of the middle school learning environment (support for competence and autonomy, quality of relationships with teachers) predicted their eighth grade motivation, achievement, and emotional functioning after accounting for demographic and prior adjustment measures. Cluster analyses in Study 2 revealed several different patterns of school functioning and emotional functioning during seventh grade that were stable over 2 years and that were predictably related to adolescents' reports of their middle school environment. Discussion focuses on the developmental significance of schooling for multiple adjustment outcomes during adolescence.     

Flunking kindergarten after Head Start: An inquiry into the contribution of contextual and individual variables.

The author examined the extent that nonpromotion to 1st grade after kindergarten can be predicted from information about school and family contexts as well as Head Start children's individual characteristics. The sample comprised 261 Head Start children and parents who were participating in a study on the transition to school. Children who lagged behind their peers on academic achievement and social adjustment indicators were more likely to be in the nonpromoted group. Parental school involvement, parental estimates of children's school adjustment, and parental satisfaction with school programs were predictive of risk for nonpromotion. Head Start children were less likely to be retained in public schools that provided educational as well as family services intended to support the transition to public school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's Achievement in Early Elementary School: Longitudinal Effects of Parental Involvement, Expectations, and Quality of Assistance.

In this prospective, longitudinal study, the authors examined the relations among parental behaviors, parental expectations, and children's academic achievement. Participants were 187 low-income children and their mothers, studied from birth of the child through 3rd grade. Mothers' quality of instruction prior to school entry had significant direct effects on IQ and indirect effects on achievement in 1st and 3rd grades. Parental expectations in 3rd grade had significant direct effects on parental involvement in 3rd grade. Children's achievement in 1st grade had significant direct effects on parental involvement and expectations in 3rd grade. Parental involvement in 3rd grade had a significant direct effect on achievement in 3rd grade. Results suggest that early parenting factors are important for children's academic achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A family literacy program connecting school and home: Effects on attitude, motivation, and literacy achievement.

This study connected home and school literacy contexts by involving parents in developmentally appropriate and culturally sensitive literacy activities with their children. The purpose of the program was to enhance children's achievement and interest in literacy. The family program was similar to a literature-based school program that included classroom literacy centers, teacher-modeled literature activities, and literacy center time. Meetings were held monthly, with parents, teachers, and children all working together. The program was in an inner-city school district including African American and Latino families. There were 56 children in 1st through 3rd grades (28 in the experimental group and 28 in the control). Pre- and posttest data determined achievement and motivation differences favoring the children in the family program. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Finger recognition skills and reading achievement: A developmental neuropsychological analysis.

Administered to 678 White kindergarten boys 4 finger recognition tasks (FRTs) and a battery of other tests, including the Embedded Figures Test, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, as part of a 6-yr longitudinal project. In their 3rd yr in school, the 80 Ss having the most significant difficulties in learning to read were identified and compared with 80 Ss who had acquired adequate reading skills. These 2 groups received the same FRTs in both their 3rd and 6th school years. FRTs (a) were differentially associated with other developmental variables in kindergarten, (b) were mastered at different ages, (c) demonstrated differential age-dependent relationships with reading status, and (d) were not related to neurological indices of brain integrity. Findings show that FRTs do not provide unitary measures of brain integrity in learning-disabled boys and do not have specific relationships with reading achievement. The significance of FRTs for reading achievement accrued primarily from their sensitivity to other developmental processes underlying reading acquisition. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children who do well in school: Individual differences in perceived competence and autonomy in above-average children.

Self-determination theory and a motivational model of engagement were used to determine the impact of perceived competence and autonomy on engagement and performance in school of 77 3rd and 4th graders identified as above average in ability by scoring above the median on the Stanford Achievement Test. Despite this high ability, children who reported experiencing a lack of competence (those less certain of their abilities) or a lack of autonomy (being externally motivated) reported more negative affect and withdrawal behaviors than did children who perceived themselves as having ability or who perceived themselves to be autonomous. Implications for the achievement and adjustment of children in school are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Randomized Study of Neighborhood Effects on Low-Income Children's Educational Outcomes.

Experimental data from the Moving to Opportunity for Fair Housing Demonstration were used to examine (a) if moving from high- to low-poverty neighborhoods (via randomization) was associated with low-income minority children's achievement, grade retention, and suspensions/expulsions; (b) if moving minimized gender differences in these outcomes; and (c) potential mediators of observed program effects. Data on school-age children (mean age = 11.79 years, SD = 3.26) were obtained from standardized assessments and parent and adolescent interviews during the New York City site's 3-year follow-up evaluation (N = 588). Moving to low-poverty neighborhoods had positive effects on 11-18-year-old boys' achievement scores compared with those of their peers in high-poverty neighborhoods. These male adolescents' scores were comparable to females' scores, whereas male adolescents in high-poverty neighborhoods scored 10 points lower than female peers. Homework time and school safety partially accounted for program effects. From a policy perspective, the program benefited disadvantaged male adolescents at high risk for dropping out of school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term effects of a school-based secondary prevention program for young maladapting children.

Assessed the current status of 61 4th–6th graders seen 2–5 yrs earlier in an intervention program for children experiencing school adjustment problems. Based on comparisons of teacher ratings of Ss' problems and competencies at 3 time points (referral, termination, and follow-up), program Ss were found to have maintained initial intervention gains. At follow-up, they were significantly better adjusted than a demographically comparable, teacher-identified group of current problem children (n?=?61), but not as well adjusted as a randomly selected, demographically matched "never-seen" group (n?=?27). The 3 groups did not differ systematically on measures of self-esteem or academic achievement. The absolute placement of the seen sample on those measures was at the midpoint of the normal range. Thus, the immediate gains shown by young, maladjusted Ss seen through the early intervention program endured over time. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental perceptions of young children and their relation to indexes of adjustment.

Studied 4 relatively independent measures of parent attitude and perception of child behavior using 395 parents of 3rd graders. These instruments were found to be reliable and to discriminate consistently between 3rd graders judged by teachers to be well or poorly adjusted. The 4 measures interrelate in a logical and systematic fashion with teacher, peer, and self-measures of adjustment and indexes of achievement. These relationships tended to be more clear-cut for females than for males. The present battery extends the potential for identifying early emotional dysfunction and complements existing assessment procedures in the area. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal outcomes of young high-risk adolescents with imaginary companions.

The creation and cultivation of an imaginary companion is considered to be a healthy form of pretend play in early childhood, but there tends to be a less positive view of older children who have them. To test the extent that having an imaginary companion in middle school is associated with positive or negative outcomes, an ethnically diverse sample of 152 middle school children at high risk for developing problem behaviors were interviewed about imaginary companions, coping styles, and problem behaviors. Although having a current imaginary companion (n = 13) was associated with using more positive coping strategies, peer nomination data indicated that these children had low social preference with peers. In addition, our data indicated that these children were perceived by their parents as having more problem behaviors compared with young adolescents who never had imaginary companions (n = 108) or children who had imaginary companions in the past (n = 31). However, a longitudinal follow-up at the end of high school indicated that the children who had imaginary companions in middle school showed greater positive adjustment on a multiple-indicator adjustment construct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictive value of teachers' ratings of young children.

Assessed the relation of teachers' ratings of young children's abilities, classroom skills, and personal-social characteristics to achievement (Wide Range Achievement Test) in school. Teachers' ratings of 217 children were obtained in the fall and spring of kindergarten and again in 2nd and 3rd grades. By the end of the 3rd grade, 146 children remained in the sample. A total of 63 teachers participated. Predictive validity of the ratings was high for both concurrent and subsequent achievement by the children. The sum of 4 ratings (Effective Learning, Retaining Information, Vocabulary, and Following Instructions) predicted achievement nearly as well as the entire battery of ratings. Average ratings were consistently higher for girls than for boys. Ratings made by mothers were less predictive of scholastic success than ratings made by teachers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Follow-up study of children identified early as emotionally disturbed.

2 consecutive groups of 1st-grade children classified for their potential for being emotionally disturbed were reexamined upon reaching 7th grade. Children manifesting high potential for being disturbed (labeled Red Tag) were compared, on school record and special test measures, with peers evidencing low potential for disturbance (labeled Non-Red Tag). These measures reflected achievement, classroom behavior, peer perceptions, attendance, and school nurse referral. Both groups of Red Tag children scored significantly more negatively than Non-Red Tag children on 10 of 47 measures in one case and on 13 of 42 in the other. These findings support the hypothesis that early disturbance in children is not ephemeral and is a portent for later difficulty. Implications of such results for programs in early identification and prevention were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School adjustment, school membership and adolescents' future expectations

Two studies investigated how students' school adjustment and sense of school membership relates to their future expectations. In Study 1 measures of future expectations, school membership and school adjustment were administered to a random sample of 307 5th-12th grade (male and female) students in 16 schools. Correlations among the measures were significant, and no meaningful grade differences were found on these variables. Multiple regression analysis showed that students' social acceptance in school predicted future expectations. Study 2 replicated Study 1 using 164 female students (i.e. the entire student population of one high school) as subjects. Findings of Study 2 also support the conclusion that students' school experiences, particularly with peers, shape their future expectations.     

The storm and stress (or calm) of early adolescent self-concepts: Within- and between-subjects variability.

This study uses intraindividual variability and change methods to test theoretical accounts of self-concept and its change across time and context and to test the developmental implications of this variability. The 5-year longitudinal study of 541 youths in a rural Pennsylvania community from 3rd through 7th grade included twice-yearly assessments of self-concept (academic and social), corresponding external evaluations of competence (e.g., teacher-rated academic skills, peer-nominated “likeability”), and multiple measures of youths' overall adjustment. Multiphase growth models replicate previous research, suggesting significant decline in academic self-concept during middle school but modest growth in social self-concept from 3rd through 7th grade. Next, a new contribution is made to the literature by quantifying the amount of within-subject variability (i.e., “lability”) around these linear self-concept trajectories as a between-subjects characteristic. Self-concept lability was found to associate with a general profile of poorer competence and adjustment and to predict poorer academic and social competence at the end of 7th grade above and beyond level of self-concept. Finally, there was substantial evidence that wave-to-wave changes in youths' self-concepts correspond to teacher and peer evaluations of youths' competence, that attention to peer feedback may be particularly strong during middle school, and that these relations may be moderated by between-subjects indicators of youths' general adjustment. Overall, findings highlight the utility of methods sensitive to within-subject variation for clarifying the dynamics of youths' self-system development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Promoting psychological development, math achievement, and success attribution of female students through deliberate psychological education.

We tested the effects of a math tutoring program. Tutors were 15 high school girls paired with tutees, elementary school girls. Tutors were measured pre–post over 1 semester on 2 indexes of psychological development, the Defining Issues Test and D. Hunt's (1978) conceptual level test. Experimental group improved on both. A comparison group of teacher aids showed no change. Elementary females improved on national math achievement test and on measures of success attribution (E. Fennema et al, 1979). Control group of elementary females showed less change on math achievement and declines on success attribution. Implications for effective school programs were outlined particularly for school teachers and counselors to collaborate on similar projects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Infant day care: Behavioral effects at preschool age.

Based on 8 mo of observation in the same setting, 19 3-4 yr olds who had been in day care from infancy were compared on 9 behavior traits (e.g., tolerance for frustration, cooperativeness with adults, and success in problem-solving) with matched Ss who had had no day-care experience prior to the study. The infant day-care group was significantly more aggressive, motorically active, and less cooperative with adults. Consideration of these results in the light of other findings with the same and other samples suggests that early day-care experience may not adversely affect adjustment with peers but may slow acquisition of some adult cultural values. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)