Paired-associate learning by schizophrenic and normal subjects under conditions of personal and impersonal reward and punishment.

This is a report of 2 dissertations done to cross-validate the findings that, contrary to normals, the performance of schizophrenics on various tasks improves under conditions of punishment rather than reward. In addition, these studies tested the effect of personal vs. impersonal conditions of reinforcement. Ss were patients with acute as well as more chronic periods of illness. The results indicate that regardless of whether the reinforcement was administered mechanically (impersonally) or by another individual (personally), the performance of the schizophrenic group again showed improvement under conditions of punishment rather than rewards. The results are related to a theory of the etiology of schizophrenia and to the treatment of schizophrenics. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4JQ22A. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychopathy and punishment.

An experiment to test the hypothesis that psychopathy is associated with deficient passive avoidance learning under punishment. 75 High Pd and 75 Low Pd female undergraduates, equated for intelligence, learned a list of 10 nonsense syllables under 1 of 3 conditions of reinforcement: verbal reward, verbal punishment, and absence of comment by E. Punishment significantly retarded the learning of Low Pd Ss, but not that of High Pd Ss. No significant differences occurred under reward or neutral conditions. The hypothesis was considered confirmed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenic discrimination learning as a function of aversive social and physical reinforcement.

60 schizophrenics comparable in important psychopathological variables (e.g., Inpatient Multidimensional Psychiatric Rating Scale and the Premorbid History-Phillips Prognostic Rating Scale) to Ss in other similar studies were compared on a discrimination learning task with noxious physical reinforcement (intense white noise at 91–94 db) under experimenter (E)-present conditions with motivational instructions and E-absent conditions with neutral instructions. Aversive reinforcement was delivered on a response contingent basis for avoidance and escape training under both social conditions. Long-term effects were evaluated 3 consecutive learning tasks: before, during, and following the 6 reinforcement conditions. Results provide strong confirmation that social factors in the E–S relationship determine the speed of learning throughout. Regardless of physical punishment or the reinforcement paradigm (avoidance or escape), Ss learned significantly faster in the E's presence with motivational instructions both during and after the reinforcement phase. The theoretical implications of what is called biological motivation were found to be insufficient grounds for ordering the data. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commitment to social deprivation and verbal conditioning.

Control Ss who experienced high prior deprivation of a reinforcing stimulus (approval) responded more with a reinforced response in a verbal conditioning situation than Ss less deprived. Other Ss committed themselves to undergoing postexperimental deprivation of social reinforcement after the same high prior social deprivation. A model suggested by dissonance theory predicted that such Ss who committed themselves for lower rewards would experience greater dissonance; the greater the dissonance, the more could Ss justify their decisions and reduce dissonance by reducing their motive for social reinforcement, consequently behaving in the conditioning situation as Ss who had low motivation for social reinforcement. As expected, experimental Ss in the High Dissonance condition who committed themselves for low reward ($1.00) responded less to social reinforcement, i.e., they showed a smaller increase in response strength of emission of verbal behavior than Control Ss or Low Dissonance Ss who committed themselves for high reward ($5.00). (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reward, punishment, and cooperation: A meta-analysis.

How effective are rewards (for cooperation) and punishment (for noncooperation) as tools to promote cooperation in social dilemmas or situations when immediate self-interest and longer term collective interest conflict? What variables can promote the impact of these incentives? Although such questions have been examined, social and behavioral scientists provide different answers. To date, there is no theoretical and/or quantitative review of rewards and punishments as incentives for cooperation in social dilemmas. Using a novel interdependence-theoretic framework, we propose that rewards and punishments should both promote cooperation, and we identify 2 variables—cost of incentives and source of incentives—that are predicted to magnify the effectiveness of these incentives in promoting cooperation. A meta-analysis involving 187 effect sizes revealed that rewards and punishments exhibited a statistically equivalent positive effect on cooperation (d = 0.51 and 0.70, respectively). The effectiveness of incentives was stronger when the incentives were costly to administer, compared to free. Centralization of incentives did not moderate the effect size. Punishments were also more effective during iterated dilemmas when participants continued to interact in the same group, compared to both (a) iterated dilemmas with reassignment to a new group after each trial and (b) one-shot dilemmas. We also examine several other potential moderators, such as iterations, partner matching, group size, country, and participant payment. We discuss broad conclusions, consider implications for theory, and suggest directions for future research on rewards and punishment in social dilemmas. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of goal value upon expectancy.

Within the framework of Rotter's social learning theory, this study investigated the effect of different goal (reinforcement) values upon expectancy. 94 boys, ranging in age from 9 to 11, were selected from the fifth and sixth grades of a public school system to serve as Ss. The tasks, representing three different levels of goal value, were the Rotter level-of-aspiration board, a rotary pursuit test, and a six-block tapping test. 71 Ss performed the tasks without a penalty for inaccuracy of estimates, and 23 performed the same tasks with a penalty imposed for inaccuracy of estimates. The most consistent finding was that the value of an event has some effect upon stated expectancy. It was also found that expectancies were significantly lower in highly valued situations; that with continued experience expectancies remained significantly lower in high value conditions; and that the association of a goal value for accuracy (penalty) to expectancy statements leads to more realistic expectancies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affecting the salience of the social responsibility norm: effects of past help on the response to dependency relationships.

A series of experiments by the authors assumes that many people in our society are motivated to aid others who are dependent upon them because such help is prescribed by a "social responsibility norm." The present study also assumes that prior help can increase the salience of this norm. In a 2 X 2 X 2 factorial design using 80 Ss (college women), ? of the Ss were individually helped by a peer (E's confederate) on a preliminary task, while the others were not aided. After this, the Ss worked on another task under the supposed supervision of yet another peer, with ? of the Ss being told the supervisor was highly dependent upon their work and the others told she was less dependent upon them. The 1st peer would supposedly learn of their work in ? of the cases but not in the other ?. The previously helped Ss tended to exert the greatest effort in behalf of their dependent peer. A self-report scale assessing social responsibility tendencies was significantly correlated with the effort measure in the Prior Help-High Dependency condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Septal lesions and incentive expectancies in rats.

Tested male albino Wistar rats with bilateral septal lesions on a multiple DRL schedule with large and small rewards. The lesion produced less efficient DRL performance under both conditions. Small rewards produced more efficient DRL responding in controls and brain-damaged Ss. A 2nd study investigated runway conditioning under immediate, delayed, and no reward. Septal lesions increased running speeds with immediate reward, maintained faster speeds during the early delayed-reward trials, but produced no differences during extinction. A 3rd experiment investigated the effects of immediate and delayed rewards on auditory discrimination learning in septal and control Ss. Brain-damaged Ss showed inferior discrimination performance with delayed rewards but not with immediate rewards. Data suggest that septal lesions alter cognitive strategies (i.e., expectancies) based on incentive characteristics. (French abstract) (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of unilateral promise and value of rewards upon cooperation and trust.

2 experiments, utilizing a 2-person, non-zero-sum game were reported. The first experiment investigated the effect of unilateral promise (enforceable or unenforceable) upon cooperation and trust. Ss receiving an enforceable promise were found to be reliably more cooperative than Ss receiving no promise. Ss under both promise conditions rated the promisor as more trustworthy than did Ss under the no-promise condition. The second experiment, investigating the effect of the value of matrix entries (imaginary versus actual rewards) upon collaboration, cooperation, and trust, found no reliable differences on any of the dependent variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power, approach, and inhibition.

This article examines how power influences behavior. Elevated power is associated with increased rewards and freedom and thereby activates approach-related tendencies. Reduced power is associated with increased threat, punishment, and social constraint and thereby activates inhibition-related tendencies. The authors derive predictions from recent theorizing about approach and inhibition and review relevant evidence. Specifically, power is associated with (a) positive affect, (b) attention to rewards, (c) automatic information processing, and (d) disinhibited behavior. In contrast, reduced power is associated with (a) negative affect; (b) attention to threat, punishment, others' interests, and those features of the self that are relevant to others' goals; (c) controlled information processing; and (d) inhibited social behavior. The potential moderators and consequences of these power-related behavioral patterns are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social class, moral orientation, and severity of punishment on boys' moral responses to transgression and generosity.

In 2 experiments with a total of 128 2nd- and 3rd-grade boys, the effects of social class, moral orientation, and severity of punishment on moral responses to transgression and generosity were investigated. In Exp I, a modified version of J. Aronfreed's task (see record 1964-02542-001), the response measures were the self-critical and reparative responses on the transgression trial, the self-critical responses prior to this trial, and the number of candies removed by the S during the task. In Exp II, the S was asked if he wished to donate any of his candy from Exp I to a "needy" child. Results indicate a differential effect of punishment treatment on the responses of the various moral orientation Ss. The flexible moral orientation Ss punished themselves less and donated more candy than the rigid Ss across the punishment conditions. The data suggest that the flexible moral orientation Ss may be more "mature" and "internalized" than the rigid orientation Ss. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aggression, need for social approval, and humor preferences.

This study investigated the humor preferences of Ss with extreme scores on need aggression and need for social approval under alcohol and nonalcohol conditions. Since aggression is disapproved by the middle class, conflict in the S was inferred by the relationships between these 2 scores. High-aggression Ss rated aggressive cartoons as funnier than did low-aggression Ss. Nonsense cartoons were rated higher by high need for social approval Ss than by low need for social approval Ss. Alcohol seemed to facilitate the expression of repressed aggressive needs in humor since the ratings of aggressive cartoons by high aggression-high need for social approval Ss were greater under alcohol than nonalcohol conditions. This difference was not found for high aggression-low need for social approval Ss, nor for the Ss with low need aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aversive conditioning in honeybees (Apis mellifera).

In Exps I–III, a shuttlebox was used, with the odor of formic acid as the aversive stimulus. A punishment contingency was found to suppress shuttling more in master animals than in yoked controls, whereas escape and unsignaled avoidance contingencies facilitated shuttling in master animals compared with yoked controls. In Exps III–VI, the Ss were unrestrained foragers flying back and forth between the hive and the sill of an open laboratory window to take sucrose solution from targets constructed so that shock could be delivered while the proboscis was in contact with the solution. A group of Ss trained to discriminate between 2 differently colored targets, one providing sucrose and the other sucrose plus immediate shock, performed as well as a group trained with sucrose and tap water and better than a group trained with sucrose and sucrose plus delayed shock. Ss for which a signal was paired with shock while they were feeding from a single target quickly learned to avoid the shock by flying off the target. The effectiveness of the pairing was demonstrated both by an explicitly unpaired procedure (which retarded acquisition when the signal and shock subsequently were paired) and by differential conditioning. Findings suggest that escape, punishment, and avoidance procedures appear to have the same effects on honeybees as on vertebrates. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosocial factors in sunbathing and sunscreen use.

Interviewed 120 sunbathing and nonsunbathing beachgoers about their health practices, knowledge about skin cancer, moods, and social rewards obtained through sunbathing. Ss also completed personality questionnaires. Data were considered using a theoretical perspective combining aspects of health belief, social influence, social learning, and risk-taking models. Results indicate that sunbathing was related to having a positive attitude toward risk taking, having little knowledge about skin cancer, reporting a relaxed mood, having friends who sunbathe, and engaging in activities related to maintaining a positive physical appearance. Sunscreen use was related to sex, having knowledge about skin cancer, knowing people who have had cancer, and reporting high levels of anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comments on Taylor's "drive theory and manifest anxiety."

An examination of the theoretical constructs underlying the prediction that nonanxious Ss acquire complex learning problems, with competing responses for a given stimulus, more rapidly than anxious Ss "cannot be regarded as a prediction from current drive theory, but rather in many situations as a refutation of it." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The motivational and emotional consequences of considering positive or negative possibilities for an upcoming event.

The hypothesis that attention to negative possibilities for an upcoming event can have advantages for performance in comparison with a more optimistic approach was examined in 2 studies. Focus of attention to positive or negative possibilities for a social interaction was manipulated for Ss previously identified as optimists or defensive pessimists in the social domain. In Study 1, negatively focused defensive pessimists performed better in their conversations than positively focused defensive pessimists on several dimensions (e.g., talk time, perceived effort, and sociability). Optimists' behavior was unaffected by the focus manipulation. However, all negatively focused Ss felt worse after their conversations than did positively focused Ss. Study 2 examined the cognitive process by which a negative focus may lead to positive behaviors. Some pessimists may benefit from an initial negative focus that is not accompanied by lowered expectations and that actually facilitates positive thoughts about the self. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conformity and counterattitudinal behavior: The effect of social support on attitude change.

Tested dissonance and attribution theory predictions regarding the effect of social support on attitude change due to counterattitudinal advocacy in 4 studies. Social support among 67 college students who were given course credit was manipulated in a counterattitudinal essay-writing situation by the compliance or noncompliance of a confederate. Contrary to predictions, Ss showed a more positive attitude toward the counterattitudinal issue after the confederate's compliance rather than noncompliance, regardless of choice. Exp II manipulated social support and severity of consequences under consistently high choice with 47 paid male university students. Data support dissonance and attribution predictions under high consequences and replicate the findings of Exp I under low consequences. Exp III, conducted with 53 paid high school students, varied social support and choice under high consequences and showed that noncompliance led to more change than compliance under high choice and the reverse effect under low choice. Exp IV manipulated social support among 67 paid female university students and the confederate's stated attitude in a 2-factor design (under consistently high choice and high consequences), resulting in main effects for both factors. Ss changed more under noncompliance than compliance and with an attitudinally dissimilar rather than similar confederate. Results suggest a functional equivalence of social support as social reward and the financial rewards used in previous studies. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction of fear and guilt in inhibiting unacceptable behavior.

80 male college students completed the Mosher Incomplete Sentences Test which was scored for sex guilt. The Ss were assigned by alternation to a fear-reduction or fear-induction experimental condition which preceded a perceptual defense task. The results supported the prediction derived from social learning theory that the inhibitory behavior of Ss who score low on a measure of sex guilt is more influenced by situational cues relevant to the probability of external punishment for sex-related behavior than is the inhibitory behavior of the high-sex-guilt group. The results suggested that the high-sex-guilt S is relatively insensitive to situational cues concerning the probability of external punishment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of compliance and the rudiments of conscience in two-year-old boys.

Studied compliance in the context of parent–child interaction in 90 2?-yr-old boys by means of naturalistic home observation and interviews. 46 Ss were twins (17 monozygotic and 29 dizygotic). Compliance criteria, including a rating for internalized standards, correlated positively with independence and maturity of speech. Multiple regression analyses of the criteria with parent variables showed that consistently enforced discipline, encouragement of independence, psychological rewards, and maternal play made important contributions to the positive prediction of compliance, whereas physical punishment and use of material rewards were negatively associated with it. A reciprocity system existed between child and parent compliance. Findings underline the importance of cognitive structure and positive social reinforcement as well as of a parental authority role for moral development. (French summary) (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of guilt, approachability of examiner, and stimulus relevance upon sexual responses to thematic apperception stimuli.

Examined the effects of approachability of female Es and stimulus relevance upon the sexual responses of 24 high- and 24 low-guilt male undergraduates (as determined by the Mosher Forced Choice Guilt Scale) to thematic stimuli. Consistent with previous results, findings show that all Ss made more sexual responses to high-relevant than low-relevant stimuli and that low-guilt Ss gave more sexual responses than high-guilt Ss to the high-relevant stimuli. Ss' perceptions of the Es were also examined. Results support predictions derived from social learning theory that high-guilt Ss are unable to discriminate between Es playing approachable and unapproachable roles, while low-guilt Ss are able to do so. Results support the hypothesis that high-guilt Ss are relatively insensitive to situational cues regarding external reward or punishment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)