Qualitative dimensions in scoring the Rey Visual Memory Test of malingering.

The ingenuity and simplicity of the Rey (A. Rey, 1964) 15-item Visual Memory Test have made it a promising screening device for examining the validity of psychological complaints. Empirical investigations have generally confirmed its ability to identify malingering. However, more recent studies found that the Rey's malingering detection ability was adversely affected by a sensitivity to the ability components of age and IQ, as well as genuine memory disorders. Procedures and rules for a qualitative scoring system were developed. Unlike the original scoring system, which was based on the number of correct items recalled, the qualitative scoring system is based on the types of errors made. The qualitative scoring system was minimally affected by ability components and was able to distinguish between psychiatrically disabled and normal nonmalingerers, and between nonmalingerers and possible malingerers in a natural group design. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commentary: Divergent thinking tests have problems, but this is not the solution.

Commentary on an article by P. J. Silvia et al. (see record 2008-05954-001) which discusses the topic of divergent thinking. It is certainly true, as Silvia et al. (2008) write, that "after half a century of research, the evidence for global creative ability ought to be better" (p. 68). The authors believe--incorrectly, I think--that the reason that divergent thinking tests have not done a better job can be found in the various scoring systems that have been used when assessing divergent thinking ability. I have presented evidence elsewhere that creativity is not a general ability or set of traits or dispositions that can be applied across domains (Baer, 1991, 1993, 1994a, 1994b, 1998). In those studies, I used Amabile's (1982, 1996) Consensual Assessment Technique (which is the basis for the subjective scoring technique proposed by Silvia et al. [2008]) to judge the creativity of a wide range of artifacts. What I found was that there is little correlation among the creativity ratings received by subjects across domains, and what little there is tends to disappear if an IQ test is also given and variance attributable to intelligence is first removed. The evidence presented thus far for Silvia et al.'s (2008) proposed method for scoring responses to divergent thinking tasks has far too many flaws to allow any confidence in its use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Errors in hand scoring objective personality tests: The case of the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire—Revised (PDQ—R).

Objective personality measures potentially eliminate random variation that can result from errors in scoring test items or tallying results. It is usually assumed that the scoring of objective personality tests is error free or nearly so. We checked the accuracy with which trained clinic personnel hand scored one particular objective personality measure, the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire—Revised (Hyler, Skodol, Oldham, Kellman, & Doidge, 1992), using a computer program that was verified to be error free. We found frequent mistakes: 53% of the inventories showed at least one error, and 19% contained errors sufficient to alter clinical diagnoses. Our results align with other studies suggesting that errors are common in scoring psychological tests and argue for wider use of such methods as computerized scoring to prevent avoidable errors and, hence, increase the accuracy of test interpretation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Particularistic and universalistic evaluation in the social comparison process.

In this article we argue that people are motivated to evaluate both the universalistic and particularistic standing of their abilities. One's universalistic standing is assessed by comparing with others who are similar to oneself on attributes related to the ability being assessed. One's particularistic standing is assessed by comparing with reference others, those with whom one shares an identity or bond. In five studies we attempted to distinguish between these two types of evaluation. We manipulated reference closeness by varying the distinctiveness of a shared attribute. In Studies 1 and 2 we gave subjects the choice of comparing a test score with that of either a distinctively similar (reference) other or a nondistinctively similar (nonreference) other. Although the two choices provided equivalent universalistic information, subjects overwhelmingly preferred to compare with the distinctively similar other. Studies 3–5 provided evidence that subjects actually did identify more closely with distinctively similar others than with nondistinctively similar others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construction defect in the Minnesota Clerical Test.

Discusses the Minnesota Clerical Test (MCT), which was published in 1933 and was constructed for selecting clerical employees and for advising persons seeking training in the clerical field. The test has been revised three times. This article highlights a defect in the test, which was previously pointed out by Kirkpatrick (1957), involving the 100 dissimilar pairs of the numerical subtest. The author argues that the defect is in the construction of the test booklet itself. The test booklet opens both ways: from right to left and from left to right. Because the manual's instructions do not specify which side to open, the subjects being tested decide which way they will do it. Because of the difference in time limits for each test, the scores obtained from those subjects who opened the book from the "wrong" side would have been totally distorted had the problem passed unnoticed. As a result the consequences for error in scoring are great. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Current developments and future directions in computerized personality assessment.

Contends, on the basis of a review of current examples of computer usage in personality assessment, that there is wide acceptance of automated clerical tasks such as test scoring and administration. The computer is also writing narrative interpretive reports from test results. Three proposed strategies (countdown, adaptive typological, and a strategy borrowed from ability testing) for developing computerized adaptive personality tests are described. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Picture memory: Recognizing added and deleted details.

When people are presented simple and complex pictures and then tested in a same–changed recognition test with a simple or complex form of each, d′ is greater for the simple than the complex picture (Pezdek & Chen, 1982). The results of three experiments confirm the robustness of this "asymmetric confusability effect" and test a model of the processes underlying this effect. According to the model, pictures are schematically encoded such that the memory representation of both simple and complex pictures is similar to the simple form of each. In Experiment 1, a sentence was presented that described the central schema in the picture prior to subjects' viewing each picture. This manipulation exaggerated the asymmetric confusability effect; schematic processing thus underlies the effect. Results of Experiment 2 refute the hypothesis that the effect results from subjects erroneously anticipating a recall test rather than a recognition test. Furthermore, although some of the nonschematic elaborative information in complex pictures is stored in memory, it is difficult to retrieve to verify that something is missing when complex presentation pictures are changed to simple test pictures (Experiment 3). Thus, although people are able to distinguish large sets of old pictures from new distractor pictures, their ability to detect missing elaborative visual details is more limited. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments.

People tend to hold overly favorable views of their abilities in many social and intellectual domains. The authors suggest that this overestimation occurs, in part, because people who are unskilled in these domains suffer a dual burden: Not only do these people reach erroneous conclusions and make unfortunate choices, but their incompetence robs them of the metacognitive ability to realize it. Across 4 studies, the authors found that participants scoring in the bottom quartile on tests of humor, grammar, and logic grossly overestimated their test performance and ability. Although their test scores put them in the 12th percentile, they estimated themselves to be in the 62nd. Several analyses linked this miscalibration to deficits in metacognitive skill, or the capacity to distinguish accuracy from error. Paradoxically, improving the skills of the participants, and thus increasing their metacognitive competence, helped them recognize the limitations of their abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The person who out performs me is a genius: Maintaining perceived competence in upward social comparison.

People have many ways of protecting themselves against unfavorable social comparisons. Sometimes, however, the unfavorableness of a comparison is too unambiguous to deny. In such circumstances, people may indirectly protect their self-images by exaggerating the ability of those who outperform them. Aggrandizing the outperformer is conceived to be a construal mechanism that permits inferior performers to deflect the self-esteem threat of being outperformed while maintaining believability. The tendency to exaggerate an outperformer's ability was demonstrated in a context in which subjects learned they had been outperformed by a confederate on a perceptual intelligence test. Subjects' and observers' ratings of the confederate's intelligence showed that subjects consistently rated the confederate more favorably than did observers. Using a similar methodology in which subjects outperformed confederates, another study showed that subjects exaggerated the ability of the people they outperformed. The conditions in which these effects are most likely to be obtained are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preliminary experience with the Internet release of AIDA--an interactive educational diabetes simulator

Language deficits following closed-head injury (CHI) are widely considered as impairments secondary to the cognitive disruptions common to closed-head injury. In addition, the use of standardized measures to assess the functioning of the language system in closed-head injury has mostly been limited to aphasia test batteries which examine primary language functions only. This has resulted in generalizations as to the integrity of the language system following closed-head injury, and as a consequence, consideration of the contribution of the language system to the achievement of communicative competence in this population has been minimized. This paper presents a framework in which the functional language system is identified as a hierarchical system containing primary and higher-order language processes involved in reciprocal relationships with cognitive functions at each level. A group of 25 closed-head injury subjects and 23 demographically matched control subjects were examined for linguistic proficiency using a battery of standardized tests which investigated the language system across a hierarchy of complexity, structure and predictability. In addition, 23 of the closed-head subjects were administered a comprehensive neuropsychological test battery in order to determine the nature and extent of concomitant impairments in cognitive processes and their relationship with impairments in the language system. The language battery was found to consistently discriminate between the control and clinical groups indicating that the linguistic system is significantly impaired following CHI, with the lexical-semantic system being the most vulnerable to disruption. A strong influential relationship between language and cognitive processes was statistically confirmed and the nature of the relationship between aspects of language and cognition further delineated.     

Evaluation of skin irritancy of sodium lauryl sulphate: a comparative study between the replica method and visual evaluation

For 20 years, using the replica method, we have evaluated the skin irritancy of about 10,000 commercial products which come into contact with the skin. In this method, test substances are usually applied on the flexor side of the upper arm for 24 h by semi-open patch test. Subsequently, skin replicas are taken and skin irritancy is evaluated microscopically. In the semi-open patch test, test substances are not completely occluded as in the closed patch test. Thus, this method is less invasive than the closed patch test method to the tested subjects. In this study, we investigated the sensitivity of microscopic scoring (MS) of the replica and visual scoring (VS) of the skin. Sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) at 0.02%, 0.05%, and 0.2% was applied on 20 subjects' upper arms, using closed and semi-open methods. In both the closed patch test and the semi-open patch test, the value of MS correlated with the concentration of SLS, while VS did not show such a clear correlation. In addition, we compared 2 clinical tests for skin irritancy which are commonly performed in Japan: VS of 48 h closed patch test reaction on the subjects' upper backs and MS of 24 h semi-open patch test reaction on the subjects' upper arms (replica method). MS on the upper arms resulted in a constant score, regardless of the location of application, while VS on the upper back produced results which differed widely depending on the location. Thus, the replica method is a useful clinical test for skin irritancy, because it is sensitive, reproducible and non-invasive.     

Effects of parathyroid hormone and serum calcium on the phenotype and function of mononuclear cells in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism

The University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT) and a smell ability questionnaire were administered to 167 Japanese volunteers ranging in age from 20 to 59 years. Of these subjects, 80 also received the T&T olfactometer threshold test. Of the latter subjects, 36 were patients tested before endoscopic nasal surgery for sinusitis and polyposis. The patients exhibited decreased smell function, as measured by the T&T olfactometer, the UPSIT, and a 30-item version of the UPSIT in which the 10 least familiar items were removed (ps < 0.001). Spearman correlations ranging from 0.53 to 0.70 were found between (i) scores on the 30- and 40-item UPSITs and (ii) the T&T detection and recognition threshold values. Significant correlations were found between scores on the smell ability questionnaire and the olfactory test measures (UPSIT30 r = 0.56; UPSIT40 r = 0.58; T&T detection r = 0.56; T&T recognition r = 0.69, p < 0.001), indicating that subjects are relatively accurate in assessing their olfactory ability. This study suggests that the 30 and 40-item UPSITs correlate well with measures derived from the T&T olfactometer, and that all three tests are sensitive to the smell loss of Japanese sinusitis/polyposis patients.     

Measurement precision in test score and item response models.

The population-dependent concept of reliability is used in test score models such as classical test theory and the binomial error model, whereas in item response models, the population-independent concept of information is used. Reliability and information apply to both test score and item response models. Information is a conditional definition of precision, that is, the precision for a given subject; reliability is an unconditional definition, that is, the precision for a population of subjects. Information and reliability do not distinguish test score and item response models. The main distinction is that the parameters are specific for the test and the subject in test score models, whereas in item response models, the item parameters are separated from the subject parameters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sound localization in the median sagittal plane by listeners with presbyacusis

In Experiment 1, a group of listeners with substantial hearing loss due to presbyacusis and a group of listeners with normal hearing were given three localization tests: a frontal plane test in which they judged whether sounds came from the left, overhead, or the right; a sagittal plane test in which they judged whether sounds came from directly in front, overhead, or behind; and an elevation test in which they judged the vertical position of sounds coming from in front. The two groups performed similarly on the frontal plane test, which chiefly depended upon their ability to use binaural localization cues. They performed differently on the sagittal plane and elevation tests, for which the predominant localization cues were spectral. The listeners with presbyacusis were substantially less accurate than those with normal hearing in both of these instances. They had particular difficulty judging source elevation, rarely scoring much above chance. Follow-up testing of a group of subjects in the early stages of presbyacusis showed localization performance that was intermediate to the other two groups, but far more like that of the normal-hearing listeners. In Experiment 2, additional tests were run with the following conditions designed to encourage improved performance by listeners with presbyacusic hearing loss: (1) filtering of stimuli to preclude masking of more informative high-frequency components by low frequencies; (2) simplification of the elevation test and greater spatial separation of its loudspeaker sources; and (3) use of hearing aids. Conditions 1 and 2 had no appreciable effect on performance; condition 3 significantly improved presbyacusic listeners' ability to localize in the sagittal plane, particularly when sounds came from the front.     

Effect of mood and analytic and intuitive judgement tendencies in the "false-fame" effect

In two experiments the process dissociation procedure (Jacoby, 1991) was used to examine the effects of mood on automatic and consciously controlled processes in a fame judgment task. Thirty nonfamous names were presented once in a study phase to the subjects. After a mood manipulation subjects performed a fame judgment task. The old nonfamous names were presented together with new nonfamous and famous names. Subjects got either the hint that names repeated from the study phase were all famous (inclusion test) or that they were all nonfamous (exclusion test). Results, especially the comparison of the inclusion and the exclusion test, indicated that subjects under negative mood based their judgments more on consciously controlled processes, i.e. recollection of names from the study phase. There was only a weak impact on good mood on controlled processes. In respect to automatic consequences of the study phase (familiarity of names) there was no difference between the three mood conditions.     

No more than skin deep: Ethnic and racial similarity in developmental process.

Many studies adduce evidence of ethnic or racial dissimilarities in developmental outcomes (e.g., delinquency and achievement). Many researchers fail to distinguish between group average levels and developmental processes (correlations). Evidence is reviewed that developmental processes are nearly identical for US Black, Hispanic, White, and Asian ethnic and racial groups. Using diverse and representative data sources, covariance matrices were computed for these ethnic groups and then compared by using a LISREL goodness-of-fit test. Not only were these matrices nearly identical but they also were no less alike than covariance matrices computed from random halves within 1 ethnic or racial group. This article documents the importance of accepting ethnic and racial similarity of developmental processes. Thus, group average level differences may result from different levels of developmental antecedents working through common developmental pathways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing Hypotheses Regarding the Causes of Comorbidity: Examining the Underlying Deficits of Comorbid Disorders.

The authors examined the validity of a method commonly used to test alternative hypotheses regarding the causes of comorbidity: the examination of underlying deficits of comorbid disorders. The authors simulated data in which the true causes of comorbidity were known, then compared the patterns of underlying deficits of the comorbid disorders found in the simulated data with the predicted results. The method of examining the underlying deficits of comorbid disorders could distinguish between several comorbidity models, including those that could not be distinguished well using other methods. The ability to distinguish the correct model decreased as the sample size and the correlation between the underlying deficits and the symptom scores decreased, suggesting that the issue of power should be considered carefully. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The easy-to-hard effect in human (Homo sapiens) and rat (Rattus norvegicus) auditory identification.

The authors examined whether progressively training humans and rats to perform a difficult auditory identification task led to larger improvements than extensive training with highly similar sounds (the easy-to-hard effect). Practice improved humans' ability to distinguish sounds regardless of the training regimen. However, progressively trained subjects were more accurate and showed more generalization, despite significantly less training with the stimuli that were the most difficult to distinguish. Rats showed less capacity to improve with practice but still benefited from progressive training. These findings indicate that transitioning from an easier to a more difficult task during training can facilitate, and in some cases may be essential for, auditory perceptual learning. The results are not predicted by an explanation that assumes interaction of generalized excitation and inhibition but are consistent with a hierarchical account of perceptual learning in which the representational precision required to distinguish stimuli determines the mechanisms engaged during learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuroticism, extraversion, and the perception of the vertical.

The experiment is described for 47 male Ss tested on their ability to judge a luminous rod held vertical while they were tilted sidewise in a chair within a dark room. "No difference was found between those scoring high or low on neuroticism, but those scoring high on extraversion were significantly less accurate than were those scoring low." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)