Identifying early dropouts from psychotherapy.

A rapid method of identifying those patients not likely to remain in treatment over an initial period was developed using patients' self-ratings on the Counseling Readiness Scale (CRS) derived from the Adjective Check List and ratings by the intake worker. These data were collected on all applicants to a student counseling service for 2 1-yr periods. The CRS and interview ratings were tested singly and in various combinations to find those that discriminated between early terminators and those remaining in treatment. In the 1st sample (106 Ss), the optimal screen consisted of any 2 of the following: a CRS score of 63 or below by the intake worker on "difficulty of remaining in treatment," and/or on "patient's ability to generate inner life data in the interview." This multiple criterion was cross-validated on a 2nd sample of 89 cases. 62% of those predicted to drop did. Finally, in a 3rd sample (36 Ss) selected to meet this criterion, 62.5% failed to return except for those receiving special preparatory training. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client locus of control, problem perception, and interview behavior.

Administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale to 50 21–27 yr old clients at a university counseling center and asked Ss to list all their problems in order of priority. Problems were subsequently classified on an external–internal dimension. Analysis of the relationship of Ss' locus of control (LOC) and interview initiative was based on a subsample of 20 Ss whose initial interview was recorded. Findings show that Ss' LOC was related to the extent to which they assumed initiative and became behaviorally involved in directing the interview process. However, contrary to expectations, counselor control did not moderate this relation. It is suggested that internally oriented clients are more likely to assume initiative in the interview and attempt to redirect the treatment process in a direction preferred by them. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Extinction versus credibility in the desensitization of speech anxiety.

Compared systematic desensitization with 2 control treatments—a nonextinction control procedure in which visualizations of hierarchy items were paired with an aversive shock, and a placebo treatment equal to desensitization in credibility. 97 undergraduates with public speaking anxiety (Personal Report of Confidence As a Speaker) served as Ss. Significant improvement was obtained for all 3 conditions on all outcome measures. Data indicate that Ss in all 3 conditions improved more than minimal treatment, simulation, and high-demand no-treatment-control Ss. Analyses failed to uncover any significant between-group differences. On 2 self-report measures, Ss' pretreatment ratings of treatment credibility accounted for significant and substantial proportions of the variance (12.6 and 36.5%). Data support the influence of perceived treatment credibility on outcome measures, and they tend to disconfirm conditioning explanations of the efficacy of systematic desensitization. A significant difference in treatment credibility ratings between actual Ss and pretest pilot Ss was also noted, suggesting the advisability of checking credibility manipulations with Ss who believe that they are to receive the treatment described in the rationale. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Three experiments using an algorithm for empathic responses.

Each of 3 experiments tested an algorithm (a set of specified procedures) for directing novice counselors (university counseling students) in making empathic responses. The independent variable was assessed using CLIENT 1, a computer simulation of an initial client interview. Exp I (26 Ss) showed that an algorithm could control Ss' behavior and revealed ways to improve the algorithm, which was then rewritten and used in the subsequent studies. Exp II (28 Ss) employed a completely randomized design, and a significant difference in favor of the experimental group was found. In Exp III (32 Ss), the algorithm was modified and a randomized block design employed. The experimental group again performed significantly better. It is concluded that algorithms can affect Ss' ability to create empathic responses. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypothesis-testing processes in social interaction.

In 4 separate investigations, female undergraduates were provided with hypotheses about the personal attributes of other individuals (targets). Ss then prepared to test these hypotheses (i.e., that their targets were extraverts or that their targets were introverts) by choosing a series of questions to ask their targets in a forthcoming interview. In each investigation, Ss planned to test these hypotheses by preferentially searching for behavioral evidence that would confirm the hypotheses. Moveover, these search procedures channeled social interaction between Ss and targets in ways that caused the targets to provide actual behavioral confirmation for Ss' hypotheses. A theoretical analysis of the psychological processes believed to underlie and generate both the preferential search for hypothesis-confirming behavioral evidence and the interpersonal consequences of hypothesis-testing activities is presented. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Helplessness and resourcefulness in coping with epilepsy.

Examined the hypothesis that emotional sequelae of epilepsy are a joint function of the epilepsy severity level and Ss' perceived repertoire of self-control skills (i.e., their learned resourcefulness). 50 19–50 yr old epileptic patients were divided into 3 groups according to the occurrence frequency of generalized tonic-clonic seizures: high, medium, and low frequencies. Ss were further divided into high-resourceful (HR) and low-resourceful (LR) groups according to their scores on the Self-Control Schedule. Ss were administered a battery of tests that included the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Beck Depression Inventory. In a structured interview Ss' emotional adjustment level was evaluated as well as their beliefs in their ability to control their health and seizures. In the medium and low categories of seizure frequency, HR Ss were significantly less depressed and anxious and coped better with their disability than LR Ss. However, in the high-frequency range of seizures, HR and LR Ss equally showed low levels of emotional adjustment. Regardless of the severity level of the epilepsy, HR Ss maintained a stronger belief in their control over their health and their seizures. Seizure frequency had no effect on these beliefs. Data support the notion that individual differences in learned resourcefulness influence the coping level of epileptics, in particular in the less severe cases of epilepsy. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of maximally different cognitive strategies and expectancy in attenuation of reported pain.

Ninety-six Ss rated pain during baseline and posttreatment exposures to cold pressor pain. Between trials, Ss in four groups were trained to use one of four cognitive coping strategies involving (a) imaginal reinterpretation, (b) imaginal distraction, (c) nonimaginal reinterpretation, or (d) nonimaginal distraction. Two additional groups were given: (e) an expectation for analgesia but no coping strategy and (f) no treatment. The four coping strategies produced equivalent attenuation of pain ratings and equivalent expectancies for analgesia. Expectancy control Ss expected analgesia, but reported no significant pain reductions. No treatment control Ss neither expected nor achieved any significant pain reductions. Among cognitive strategy groups, the Ss' absorption added significantly to the variance in pain reduction above and beyond the effects of expectancy. Theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of out-group cues in determining social identity.

Examined the role of out-group cues in determining social identity and guiding behavior in 2 experiments with 131 undergraduates. In Exp I, Ss were exposed to a cue either of an in-group (Ss' college), a relevant out-group (a rival college), or an irrelevant out-group (a baseball team). Ss examined a list of words and were later asked to recognize those they had seen from a larger list in which words related to the 3 groups were embedded. Results indicate that Ss made more false recognitions of in-group related words when a relevant out-group was salient than when an irrelevant out-group was salient. Exp II tested a behavioral implication of Exp I: Out-group salience increases adherence to an in-group norm. In the 1st phase of Exp II, Ss were divided into 2 groups and deliberated 2 civil suits. Ss' in-group favored the plaintiffs for both cases. Ss were divided into new groups for the 2nd phase, and the same procedure was followed. This time, however, the in-group favored the defendants. In the 3rd phase, Ss were exposed to a cue either of the out-group in Phase 1 or Phase 2. Ss' judgments for 2 new cases were biased in the direction of the norm of the in-group that was associated with the salient out-group. Ss favored the plaintiff (or defendant) when the 1st (or 2nd) out-group was salient. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drug use and attitudes toward social and legal aspects of marijuana in a large metropolitan university.

Studied the responses of 788 students at a large metropolitan university on an anonymous questionnaire concerning marihuana. Ss' attitude toward marihuana shifted from strongly negative to strongly positive as frequency of marihuana use increased. With frequency of use controlled, attitude toward marihuana was even more favorable when other drugs had been tried, and also among Ss who were religiously inactive. 74% of the Ss had at least tried marihuana and 39% reported weekly or more often use. 34% of the weekly or more often users reported no experience with "ups" and "downs," hallucinogens, or opiates, and 14% who used all 3 of these reported no use of marihuana so the causal relationship, if any, was weak. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of single therapists versus cotherapy teams in sex therapy.

Assigned 65 sexually dysfunctional couples to treatment by a single male therapist, a single female therapist, or a dual-sex cotherapy team. The male Ss in age ranged from 21 to 69 yrs; female Ss were aged 20 to 65 yrs. Mean duration of the Ss' relationships was 12.7 yrs. Treated dysfunctions included male erectile failure and premature ejaculation and female primary and secondary orgasmic dysfunction. Assessments of marital and sexual satisfaction and functioning were made at initial intake, at the start of therapy, immediately following therapy, and at a 3-mo follow-up. The assessment battery included the Sexual Interaction Inventory, a marriage inventory, patient global ratings, and measures of symptom remission. Repeated measures ANOVA and post hoc comparisons failed to reveal any differences in effectiveness of single therapists vs cotherapy teams. Furthermore, in cases treated by single therapists, a matching of sex of therapist with sex of the dysfunctional member of the couple did not lead to better outcome than for nonmatched cases. Overall, sex therapy was generally effective, although greater gains were shown in Ss' global ratings of satisfaction and in the psychometric measures of adjustment than in actual symptom remission. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interviewer disclosure modeling, information revealed, and interviewee verbal behavior.

Investigated the effectiveness of the interviewer as a model of and recipient for interviewee self-disclosure when modeled content revealed favorable or unfavorable personal information. Of 24 undergraduate males who served as Ss, 8 were in a control condition and received only minimal interview structuring. During a 30-min interview, Ss talked about their relationship with 4 target persons. Contrary to a "model status loss" hypothesis suggested by previous research, the disclosure of unfavorable information did not decrease the effectiveness of the interviewer's interventions. Although Ss' perceptions of their disclosing interviewer were in the expected direction on 9 of 10 interpersonal rating dimensions, between-group differences did not reach significance. Ss talked longer and achieved higher levels of self-exploration in both modeling conditions than in the no-model control situation. Frequency and patterning of Ss' positive and negative self-references also were related to treatment conditions. Implications for psychotherapy interventions and continued interview behavior research are discussed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of practice and some methodological considerations in training counseling interviewing skills.

Studied 3 areas of counseling interview training (the role of practice, the use of modeling, and evaluation procedures) in 51 university students from a counseling class. Ss were randomly assigned to 5 training conditions: (a) audiovisual model followed by practice, (b) audiovisual model followed by no practice, (c) written model followed by practice, (d) written model followed by no practice, and (e) a comparison training group. Ss' responses to an audiotape of structured interview segments were evaluated, and outcome measures were the frequencies of total and preferred use of open-ended questions, tacting response, and silence. The frequencies for both the total use and total preferred use of interviewing skills were significantly higher for Ss in the practice training condition than in the no-practice training condition regardless of the model. The effects of the research methodologies currently in use are dicussed in light of the results of this study. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contraceptive behavior among intravenous drug users at risk for AIDS.

Examined factors associated with practicing contraception among 319 street-recruited iv drug users in New York City. The Ss were administered a structured interview covering AIDS risk behaviors, drug use history, and sexual behavior. Slightly over half of Ss (52%) were practicing contraception, primarily with condoms and birth control pills. Among 220 male Ss, contraception was associated with being non-Hispanic, being unmarried, having a home, and AIDS-related changes in drug injection behavior. Among 99 female Ss, it was associated with having multiple sexual partners. Although concern about AIDS was evident in Ss' behavior, there are multiple determinants (ethnic group membership, situational practicalities, and concern about AIDS) in practicing contraception, and the level of contraception among this group will still result in many unwanted pregnancies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situational influences on the use of power.

Varied kind of subordinate problem encountered and number of subordinates supervised in a study of the use of supervisory power. Ss were 48 male undergraduates appointed to oversee the production of simulated workers. It was found that problems of discipline evoked Ss' use of coercive powers, while problems of ineptness evoked Ss' use of expert powers. Variations in the number of subordinates supervised influenced the amount of attention Ss could give to any 1 worker. This resulted in less time spent with poor workers and fewer pay raises given to satisfactory workers, when Ss were supervising large numbers of workers. Ss with little confidence in their leadership ability relied mainly on formally proscribed powers to correct poor performance, while more confident Ss used both informal persuasion and formally proscribed powers. It was also found that the nature of the problem manifested by a problem worker influenced the frequency of pay raises given to satisfactory workers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of discussion and role-play activities in the acquisition of consultant interview skills.

15 graduate students in each of 2 experimental groups were enrolled in a consultation course in which they received a didactic explanation and viewed a videotaped demonstration of consultant interview skills. Ss in the 1st experimental group participated in role-play practice activities; Ss in the 2nd experimental group participated in discussion activities. 15 graduate students not enrolled in the course comprised a 3rd group, and they received no training. Interview skills of all groups were assessed by rating Ss' oral responses to simulated videotaped consultation interview segments. Results indicate that Ss in the role-play group made a significantly higher mean number of appropriate responses than Ss in either the discussion or control groups. No significant differences were found between Ss in the role-play and discussion groups on degree of satisfaction with the course. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of diagnostic information on empathic understanding by the therapist in a psychotherapy analogue.

Presented psychoanalytic, phenomenological, or no diagnostic information about 3 clients to each of 18 graduate students training to be psychotherapists. Ss' responses to a therapy tape of the client then were scored for empathic communication. Ss also completed a Q sort on how they thought the client perceived himself at the time of the interview. An index of accuracy of empathic inference was computed between the Ss' Q sorts of the clients and the clients' own self-sorts. No significant effects of the diagnostic information on empathy were found. Certain clients consistently elicited a greater degree of empathy from Ss. Degree of empathic communication was found to be a relatively stable therapist characteristic. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual attitudes and self-reported behavior of congenitally disabled adults.

A 1–3 hr personal interview was conducted and a questionnaire was administered to 45 18–35 yr old physically disabled Ss. The questionnaire dealt with (a) attitudes towards pornography, masturbation, and other aspects of sexuality; (b) degree of personal interest in sex; and (c) the extent and form of Ss' intimate sexual behavior. Results indicate that while Ss tended to express liberal attitudes toward sexuality, they did not indicate a high degree of personal interest in sex. Nearly all of the Ss were unmarried, and over half had never had a serious relationship with the opposite sex or any intimate sexual experience. There were indications that many Ss were uninformed about sexual matters. Ss' negative attitudes toward sex could be attributed to restrictive living conditions and insufficient sex education and guidance. As a group, females expressed more conservative attitudes toward sexuality than did males. Findings suggest the need for reorientation on the part of parents, educators, and society toward recognizing and accepting the emotional and sexual needs of disabled persons. (French summary) (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rats prefer signaled over unsignaled shock-free periods.

Three experiments with 48 female rats investigated Ss' preference for a schedule of shock containing signaled shock-free periods (SSF schedule) or the same shock schedule without signals (unsignaled schedule). Exp I was a replication of the shuttle-box experiment reported by M. S. Fanselow (see record 1981-00807-001), in which rats preferred unsignaled shock over the SSF schedule. Contrary to Fanselow's results, Ss in Exp I failed to develop a preference. In Exp II, forced-exposure training was added, testing was extended from 2 165-min sessions to 8, and a reversal phase was added. Results show that 3 of 4 Ss preferred the SSF schedule, and 2 of these continued to prefer it after reversal. In Exp III, forced-exposure training was eliminated, but signals were lengthened from 30 to 60 sec, and the test was extended to 12 sessions. Results show that Ss choosing between the unsignaled and SSF schedules chose the SSF schedule, whereas a random control group chose the unsignaled schedule. Findings indicate that choice between active schedules is determined by the relative aversiveness of all stimuli presented and not, as implied by contextual fear analysis, by that of contextual stimuli alone. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increasing the interpersonal problem-solving skills of an alcoholic population.

64 male alcoholics aged 23–66 yrs admitted into an alcoholism treatment program at a VA hospital were assigned to either the control or treatment group. Control Ss participated in all standard treatment aspects of the program. Treatment Ss, however, participated in an additional 10 sessions of group therapy structured specifically to improve interpersonal problem-solving thinking skills. Comparisons conducted at the point of discharge (generally 6 wks after admission) demonstrated that treatment Ss had made significantly greater improvement on a measure of problem-solving thinking (Means–Ends Problem Solving procedure) than had controls. Further, a comparison of Ss' responses in a structured discharge interview demonstrated that treatment Ss were significantly more likely to anticipate and plan ahead for postdischarge problems than were control Ss. Data also reveal that the means–ends problem-solving procedure can reliably discriminate individuals within an adult alcoholic population who differ in their levels of social competence and in the quality of their planning for coping with postdischarge problems. Finally, follow-up at the 1-mo postdischarge point indicated that the majority of treatment Ss contacted had made practical use of the problem-solving principles that were taught in the group sessions. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)