Effect of fibre/matrix adhesion on residual strength of notched composite laminates

Effects of fibre/matrix adhesion and residual strength of notched polymer matrix composite laminates (PMCLs) and fibre reinforced metal laminates (FRMLs) were investigated. Two different levels of adhesion between fibre and matrix were achieved by using the same carbon fibres with or without surface treatments. After conducting short-beam shear and transverse tension tests for fibre/matrix interface characterisation, residual strength tests were performed for PMCLs and FRMLs containing a circular hole/sharp notch for the two composite systems. It was found that laminates with poor interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix exhibit higher residual strength than those with strong fibre/matrix adhesion. Major failure mechanisms and modes in two composite systems were studied using SEM fractography. The effective crack growth model (ECGM) was also applied to simulate the residual strength and damage growth of notched composite laminates with different fibre/matrix adhesion. Predictions from the ECGM were well correlated with experimental data.     

Effects of fibre content on mechanical properties and fracture behaviour of short carbon fibre reinforced geopolymer matrix composites

Geopolymer matrix composites reinforced with different volume fractions of short carbon fibres (C_f/geopolymer composites) were prepared and the mechanical properties, fracture behaviour and microstructure of as-prepared composites were studied and correlated with fibre content. The results show that short carbon fibres have a great strengthening and toughening effect at low volume percentages of fibres (3·5 and 4·5 vol.%). With the increase of fibre content, the strengthening and toughening effect of short carbon fibres reduce, possibly due to fibre damage, formation of high shear stresses at intersect between fibres and strong interface cohesion of fibre/matrix under higher forming pressure. The property improvements are primarily based on the network structure of short carbon fibre preform and the predominant strengthening and toughening mechanisms are attributed to the apparent fibre bridging and pulling-out effect.     

Effects of moisture on the mechanical properties of glass fibre reinforced vinylester resin composites

Glass fibre reinforced vinylester resin composites incorporating varying amounts of fibres (63.5, 55.75, 48.48, 38.63 and 27.48 wt%) were characterized for their mechanical properties both as prepared and after treatment with boiling water for 2, 4, 6, 8 and 24 h. Weights of the samples were found to increase to a saturation at about 8 h with boiling water treatment. In keeping with the composite principle, the mechanical properties improved with fibre loading. However, the properties were relatively inferior when treated with boiling water for longer hours attributing to ingress of moisture by capillary action through the interface between the fibre and the resin matrix. Considering the rates of moisture absorption and correlating with the mechanical properties, it was observed that the deteriorating effects were predominant up to 4 h treatment with boiling water. Estimation of defect concentrations for 63.5 wt% of nascent fibre reinforced composites as well as those composites treated with boiling water for 24 h were 56.93% and 64.16% respectively. Similarly, 27.48 wt% nascent fibre reinforced composites and those composites with boiling water treatment showed the estimation of defect concentrations of 39.94% and 50.55% respectively. SEM study of the fractured surfaces showed heavy fibre pull-out in the tensile zone whilst shear fracture of the fibre bundles was predominant at the compressive zone of the samples tested for flexural strength properties.     

Characterization of fibre/matrix interfaces in carbon/carbon composites

The present paper proposes an approach to characterizing fibre/matrix (F/M) interface in carbon/carbon (C/C) composites with respect to both modes of loading that may be expected: opening or shearing. Push-out and tensile tests were used. The former tests involve the shearing mode whereas the latter ones involve the opening one. Push-out tests use a diamond indenter to load the fibres. The interface sliding shear stress was obtained from the load-fibre displacement curve. The tensile tests were conducted on specimens having fibres oriented at 90° with respect to loading direction in order to preferentially open the interfaces. Interface opening strength was extracted from the composite tensile stress–strain behaviour. The specimens were examined under load and after ultimate failure by optical microscopy (OM). The mechanical properties of the F/M interfaces were then discussed.     

超高分子量聚乙烯纤维复合材料用树脂基体的研究进展

本文从提高超高分子量聚乙烯 (UHMWPE)纤维与基体的粘接性入手 ,介绍了目前UHMWPE纤维复合材料常用的聚氨酯类、橡胶类、乙烯酯类树脂体系的特点和应用现状及前景。分析了UHMWPE纤维复合材料作为防弹材料、结构材料等的优点和目前所存在的问题 ,针对这些问题提出了解决的思路。     

Preparation, characterisation and processing of carbon fibre/polyamide-12 composites for selective laser sintering

Aiming at developing carbon fibre/polyamide-12 (CF/PA) composite powders for manufacturing high-performance components by selective laser sintering (SLS), the preparation, characteristics and sintering process of the composite powders and mechanical properties of sintered components were studied. Surfaces of the carbon fibres were treated by the oxidation modification and coated with polyamide-12 through the dissolution-precipitation process to provide good interfacial adhesion and homogenous dispersion within the polyamide-12 matrix. The particle size and micro-morphology analyses show that the CF/PA composite powders with 30 wt%, 40 wt% and 50 wt% carbon fibres present the suitable powder sizes and format for SLS. The incorporation of carbon fibres into the polyamide-12 matrix decreases the initial melting temperature and consequently lowers the SLS part bed temperatures, implying lower energy requirement and less thermal degradation in the sintering process. The CF/PA composites also represent higher thermal stability than the pure polyamide-12. The CF/PA sintered components with 30 wt%, 40 wt% and 50 wt% carbon fibres exhibit the greatly enhanced flexural strengths by 44.5%, 83.3%, 114%, and the flexural modulus by 93.4%, 129.4%, 243.4%, respectively, as compared with the pure polyamide-12 sintered parts. Fractured surface analysis shows that the carbon fibres are encapsulated and bonded well with the polyamide matrix. The complex SLS parts with the thinnest wall of 0.6 mm, the density of 1.09 ± 0.02 g/cm³ and the relatively density of 94.13 ± 1.72% were manufactured using the CF/PA composite powder with 30 wt% carbon fibres. This study demonstrates that the CF/PA composite powders prepared by the surface treatment and dissolution-precipitation method represent suitable interfacial adhesion, filler dispersion, particle sizes and sintering behaviours for SLS and enable the manufacture of complex components with high performance.     

Analysis of the single-fibre pull-out test by means of Raman spectroscopy: Part II. Micromechanics of deformation for an aramid/epoxy system

The single-fibre pull-out test has been analysed for Kevlar-49 fibres in a cold-cured epoxy resin by using both a conventional pull-out experiment and Raman spectroscopy. The interfacial shear strength (ISS) has been estimated from the pull-out force for fibres with a range of embedded lengths. Raman spectroscopy has been used to analyse the distribution of fibre strain in the pull-out test by mapping the variation of strain along an aramid fibre undergoing pull-out from the epoxy resin matrix. At low strains the behaviour follows elastic shear-lag analysis but, as the fibre strain is increased, debonding takes place at the fibre/matrix interface. It is found that this debond propagates along the interface until the entire fibre is debonded. The fibre is then pulled out of the resin matrix by a frictional pull-out process. It is shown that the conventional pull-out experiment produces only an apparent value of ISS and that through a partial-debonding model it is possible to use the interfacial parameters obtained from the Raman analysis to predict the data from the conventional test.     

Rheological characterisation of discrete long glass fibre (LGF) reinforced thermoplastics

Three experimental techniques have been employed to assess the rheological behaviour of discrete long glass fibre reinforced polypropylene and propylene/ethylene copolymers. A Carri Med cone and plate rheogoniometer has been used to determine shear viscosity as a function of strain rate and time at temperatures relevant to the extrusion and injection moulding processes. A bubble inflation test (BIT) has been designed and used to characterise the behaviour of these composites under the extensional flow fields typical of blow moulding and thermoforming. Finally a squeeze load test (SLT), similar to those developed for sheet moulding compounds (SMC) and glass mat thermoplastics (GMT), has been used to explore the rheological behaviour of the long glass fibre (LGF) materials under compression moulding conditions, in particular to assess the relative importance of shear and extensional flow.     

Short fibre elastomer composites: effect of fibre length,orientation, loading and bonding agent

A series of short fibre reinforced styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) composites were prepared by incorporating sisal fibres of different lengths and different concentrations. The vulcanization behaviour and the properties of the vulcanizates were measured by the relevant ASTM procedures. The processing characteristics such as green strength and mill shrinkage were improved by the addition of fibres. The properties like tensile strength, tear strength, moduli at 10% and 20% elongations were found to be maximum for composites containing longitudinally oriented fibres of length 6 mm. Mixes containing 35 phr loading of fibres and bonding agent showed better mechanical performance than others. The failure behaviour of tensile and tear specimens have been analysed by scanning electron microscopy techniques. Paper presented at the poster session of MRSI AGM VI, Kharagpur, 1995     

Static and fatigue characterisation of new basalt fibre reinforced composites

Basalt reinforced composites are recently developed materials. These mineral amorphous fibres are a valid alternative to carbon fibres for their lower cost, and to glass fibres for their strength. In order to use basalt reinforced composites for structural applications, it is necessary to perform a mechanical characterisation. With this aim in the present work experimental results of several static and fatigue tests are described. Two polymeric matrices are taken into account, vinylester and epoxy, to assess their influence on the evaluated parameters. In parallel to these mechanical tests, also the thermal answer of the specimens to mechanical loads is evaluated by means of thermography. This experimental technique allows defining the composite local heating during the application of mechanical loads and its behaviour in details. Final discussion on obtained results is proposed focussing the attention on basalt fibre composite behaviour, and comparing mechanical properties of BFRP with other composite materials in glass and carbon fibres.     

纤维增强聚合物基复合材料的低温性能

对纤维增强聚合物基复合材料在低温领域的实际应用进行了分类介绍,通过对纤维增强聚合物基复合材料的低温性能、性能影响因素和作用机理、低温应用安全性等方面的研究工作进行总结,突出各类纤维增强聚合物基复合材料低温下的性能优势,阐明了材料性能的不足之处及相应改进措施.对于实际低温应用中纤维增强聚合物基复合材料的选择、性能设计优化,系统安全性的增强提供了参考作用.     

Impact damage characterisation of carbon fibre/epoxy composites with multi-layer reinforcement

Low-velocity impact tests were performed to investigate the impact behaviour of carbon fibre/epoxy composite laminates reinforced by short fibres and other interleaving materials. Characterisation techniques, such as cross-sectional fractography and scanning acoustic microscopy, were employed quantitatively to assess the internal damage of some composite laminates at the sub-surface under impact. Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe impact fractures and damage modes at the fracture surfaces of the laminate specimens. The results show that composite laminates experience various types of fracture; delamination, intra-ply cracking, matrix cracking, fibre breakage and damage depending on the interlayer materials. The trade-off between impact resistance and residual strength is minimised for composites reinforced by Zylon fibres, while that for composites interleaved by poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid) (PEEA) film is substantial because of deteriorating residual strength, even though the damaged area is significantly reduced. Damages produced on the front and back surfaces of impact were also observed and compared for some laminates.     

Development of the tensioned push-out test for study of fibre/matrix interfaces

Finite element modelling has been used to explore the basic single-fibre push-out test and a variant in which in-plane tension is simultaneously applied. Comparison with experimental photoelastic data has shown that shear-lag based analytical models of the test are unreliable, even for the simplest cases. It has been shown that the loading geometry and, particularly, the presence of thermal residual stresses can affect the interfacial stress state, which often tends to vary significantly along the length of the fibre. For a metal-matrix composite, the peak shear stress is predicted to occur near the bottom of the fibre, which is where debonding is expected to initiate. The proportion of normal and shear stresses at the interface can be altered by the application of in-plane tension. Some previously published experimental tensioned push-out data for the SiC/Ti system have been interpreted in the light of finite element modelling, allowing an estimate to be made of the interfacial coefficient of friction.     

Dry friction characterisation of carbon fibre tow and satin weave fabric for composite applications

Composites forming processes such as resin transfer moulding (RTM) typically involve a preforming step in which dry fabric material is deformed. Frictional forces in tool–fabric and fabric–fabric contacts determine the fabric deformation behaviour to a large extent. Previous investigations of the frictional behaviour of fibrous materials were mostly performed on a particular scale, i.e. microscopic (filament), mesoscopic (tow), or macroscopic (fabric). This study aims to provide a coupling between these scales by means of friction experiments on both carbon tows and carbon fabric in contact with metal counterfaces. The frictional behaviour of both materials on metal was measured on a capstan and a flat plate-friction setup. The frictional behaviour of fabric was comparable to that of single tows for matching pressures based on the mesoscopic contact area with the metal counterface. Furthermore, the agreement of the results forms a validation of both friction characterisation methods.     

Fracture characterisation of short bamboo fibre reinforced polyester composites

In the study, fracture behaviour of short bamboo fibre reinforced polyester composites is investigated. The matrix is reinforced with fibres ranging from 10 to 50, 30 to 50 and 30 to 60 vol.% at increments of 10 vol.% for bamboo fibres at 4, 7 and 10 mm lengths respectively. The results reveal that at 4 mm of fibre length, the increment in fibre content deteriorates the fracture toughness. As for 7 and 10 mm fibre lengths, positive effect of fibre reinforcement is observed. The optimum fibre content is found to be at 40 vol.% for 7 mm fibre and 50 vol.% for 10 mm fibre. The highest fracture toughness is achieved at 10 mm/50 vol.% fibre reinforced composite, with 340% of improvement compared to neat polyester. Fractured surfaces investigated through the Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) describing different failure mechanisms are also reported.     

Processing and characterisation of cermet/hardmetal laminates with strong interfaces

Cemented carbides and cermets are potential materials for high speed machining tools. However, cemented carbides are not chemically stable at high temperature and cermets present poor fracture toughness. Novel cermet/hardmetal multilayer systems show a huge potential for this intended application. It would be possible to achieve the right balance of the required thermomechanical properties using cermet as temperature protective outer layers and hardmetal as reinforcement layers. In this work, preliminary results on the microstructural and mechanical characterisation of a multilayer TiC_xN_1−x–Co/WC–Co composite densified by hot pressing are presented, with special attention to the properties of the interface. Microstructural observations revealed the existence of strong bonding interfaces between cermet and hardmetal layers due to chemical interaction during the sintering process. As a consequence, owing to the different coefficient of thermal expansion between cermet and hardmetal, a tensile and compressive biaxial residual stress of σ_res,Cermet ≈ +260 ± 50 MPa and σ_res,WC–Co ≈ −350 ± 70 MPa was estimated in the corresponding layers. Microindentation cracks introduced in the cermet layers (the less toughness material) and propagated transversely to the layers were arrested at the interface, showing the combined effect of toughness and compressive stresses on crack shielding.     

纤维表面处理对CF/PAA复合材料界面性能的影响

采用多结构形态倍半硅氧烷（VMS—SSO）涂层结合等离子活化纤维表面的方法对碳纤维（CF）改性,研究了纤维表面处理对碳纤维／聚芳基乙炔复合材料界面性能的影响．结果表明,等离子活化前后纤维表面涂层处理使材料的ILSS分别提高25％和45％,在碳纤维与树脂之间引入了过渡层．等离子活化纤维在碳纤维与涂层间通过VMS-SSO引入了化学键连接．含活性官能团的多形态倍半硅氧烷涂层在等离子活化纤维前后处理碳纤维,都能提高复合材料的界面性能．但是效果不同．其原因是,碳纤维与树脂间相互作用的不同,前者主要是过渡层效应,后者在碳纤维与树脂间引入了化学键．     

Acoustic emission applied to glass fibre/organic thermosetting matrix interface characterization

The aim of this paper is to propose a characterization method of the glass fibre/organic matrix interface based on acoustic emission. On the basis of tensile tests, it was possible to make a discrimination between the features which are not characteristic of the fibre/matrix interface (fracture properties and modulus) because taking into account some parameters other than the interface alone on one hand, and on the other hand certain characteristic features (strain and energy at first damage) which are defined on the basis of an analysis of the acoustic emission spectra of the material.     

Effects of fibre/matrix adhesion on carbon-fibre-reinforced metal laminates—I.: Residual strength

The role of interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix on the residual strength behaviour of carbon-fibre-reinforced metal laminates (FRMLs) has been investigated. Differences in fibre/matrix adhesion were achieved by using treated and untreated carbon fibres in an epoxy resin system. Mechanical characterisation tests were conducted on bulk composite specimens to determine various properties such as interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) and transverse tension strength which clearly illustrate the difference in fibre/matrix interfacial adhesion. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the difference in fracture surfaces, the untreated fibre composites showing interfacial failure while the treated fibre composites showed matrix failure. No clear differences were found for the mechanical properties such as tensile strength and Young's modulus of the FRMLs despite the differences in the bulk composite properties. A reduction of 7·5% in the apparent value of the ILSS was identified for the untreated fibre laminates by both three-point and five-point bend tests. Residual strength and blunt notch tests showed remarkable increases in strength for the untreated fibre specimens over the treated ones. Increases of up to 20% and 14% were found for specimens with a circular hole and saw cut, respectively. The increase in strength is attributed to the promotion of fibre/matrix splitting and large delamination zones in the untreated fibre specimens owing to the weak fibre/matrix interface.