Childhood depressive symptoms and adolescent cigarette use: A six-year longitudinal study controlling for peer relations correlates.

Objective: To examine potential pathways between childhood depressive symptoms and adolescent cigarette use, controlling for potential “third variable” causes. Design: Participants included 250 youth (60% girls) who were in Grades 4 to 6 at study outset and in Grades 10 to 12 (M age = 16.78) at a 6-year follow-up. At Time 1, children completed measures of depressive symptoms, as well as peer nominations of peer acceptance, rejection, and aggressive behavior. Main Outcome Measures: Time 2 measures included adolescents’ own and close friends’ cigarette use, depressive symptoms, and externalizing behaviors; parents also reported on adolescent behaviors. Results: Higher levels of childhood depressive symptoms and aggressive behavior were associated longitudinally with cigarette use in adolescence. After controlling for other associations, higher levels of childhood depressive symptoms also were associated with higher levels of friends’ cigarette use in adolescence and higher levels of adolescent depressive symptoms; each of these adolescent outcomes was concurrently associated with cigarette use. Conclusion: Depressive symptoms in childhood may lead to altered developmental trajectories that either directly or indirectly contribute to adolescent outcomes, including cigarette use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship Between Depressive Symptoms and Cigarette Use Among African American Adolescents.

The relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette use was examined in a sample of 623 African Americans during adolescence and transition to adulthood by using hierarchical linear modeling. Participants in the study were interviewed across 6 occasions over 8 years. Results indicate that depressive symptoms tend to decrease over time, whereas cigarette use tends to increase for both female and male adolescents. The results also suggest that depressive symptoms predict later cigarette use. Male adolescents who reported more depressive symptoms were more likely than female adolescents to use cigarettes as a way to cope with their mood. These results suggest that depressive symptoms may be important to consider when developing smoking cessation interventions for African American youth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal linkages between sibling relationships and adjustment from middle childhood through adolescence.

The links between changes in sibling conflict and intimacy and changes in perceived peer social competence and depression symptoms were examined from middle childhood through adolescence. Participants were mothers, fathers and first- and second-born siblings from 197 White, working/middle class, two-parent families. Peer competence peaked in early adolescence and then declined; depression symptoms were high in middle childhood and, for girls, in middle adolescence. Controlling for parent-offspring relationships and sibling and parent adjustment, increases in sibling conflict were linked to increases in depression symptoms, and increases in sibling intimacy were linked to increases in peer competence and, for girls, decreases in depression symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A mixture-model approach to linking ADHD to adolescent onset of illicit drug use.

Prior research findings have been mixed as to whether attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is related to illicit drug use independent of conduct problems (CP). With the current study, the authors add to this literature by investigating the association between trajectories of ADHD symptoms across childhood and adolescence and onset of illicit drug use, with and without controlling for CP. In a longitudinal panel study of a community sample of 754 girls and boys recruited in kindergarten, this research question was examined with a combination of growth mixture modeling (to model parent-reported ADHD symptom trajectories) and survival analysis (to model youth-reported initiation of illicit drug use). Results revealed a 3-class model of ADHD trajectories, with 1 class exhibiting no or minimal symptoms throughout childhood and adolescence, another class showing a convex shape (an increase, then a decrease in symptoms) across time, and a third class showing a concave shape (a decrease, then a slight increase in symptoms) over time. The concave-trajectory class demonstrated significantly earlier onset of illicit drug use than the minimal-problem class, with the convex-trajectory class falling between (but not significantly different from either of the other two classes). These results did not change when the authors added CP to the model as a covariate. Implications of findings for theory and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic and emotional functioning in early adolescence: longitudinal relations, patterns, and prediction by experience in middle school

Adopting a motivational perspective on adolescent development, these two companion studies examined the longitudinal relations between early adolescents' school motivation (competence beliefs and values), achievement, emotional functioning (depressive symptoms and anger), and middle school perceptions using both variable- and person-centered analytic techniques. Data were collected from 1041 adolescents and their parents at the beginning of seventh and the end of eight grade in middle school. Controlling for demographic factors, regression analyses in Study 1 showed reciprocal relations between school motivation and positive emotional functioning over time. Furthermore, adolescents' perceptions of the middle school learning environment (support for competence and autonomy, quality of relationships with teachers) predicted their eighth grade motivation, achievement, and emotional functioning after accounting for demographic and prior adjustment measures. Cluster analyses in Study 2 revealed several different patterns of school functioning and emotional functioning during seventh grade that were stable over 2 years and that were predictably related to adolescents' reports of their middle school environment. Discussion focuses on the developmental significance of schooling for multiple adjustment outcomes during adolescence.     

Ethnic and gender differences in risk factors for smoking onset.

The purpose of this investigation was to explore gender and ethnic differences in the prevalence of risk factors for smoking onset. As part of a larger study, 6,967 seventh graders completed a questionnaire measuring variables shown in previous research to predict cigarette smoking. The results indicated that at this age level, risk factors for smoking initiation are less prevalent among African Americans than European American youth and among girls relative to boys. These findings are consistent with the lower incidence of smoking among African Americans and girls at this young age. Future research should examine changes in risk factors over time to determine whether such changes accompany the rising smoking rate typically observed among girls and African Americans later in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experiences of discrimination among Chinese American adolescents and the consequences for socioemotional and academic development.

This longitudinal study examined the influences of discrimination on socioemotional adjustment and academic performance for a sample of 444 Chinese American adolescents. Using autoregressive and cross-lagged techniques, the authors found that discrimination in early adolescence predicted depressive symptoms, alienation, school engagement, and grades in middle adolescence but that early socioemotional adjustment and academic performance did not predict later experiences of discrimination. Further, their investigation of whether earlier or contemporaneous experiences of discrimination influenced developmental outcomes in middle adolescence indicated differential effects, with contemporaneous experiences of discrimination affecting socioemotional adjustment, whereas earlier discrimination was more influential for academic performance. Finally, they found a persistent negative effect of acculturation on the link between discrimination and adolescents’ developmental outcomes, such that those adolescents who were more acculturated (in this case, higher in American orientation) experienced more deleterious effects of discrimination on both socioemotional and academic outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporal associations of cigarette smoking with social influences, academic performance, and delinquency: A four-wave longitudinal study from ages 13-23.

This study examined the temporal associations of cigarette smoking with prosmoking social influences, academic performance, and delinquency in a cohort of 6,527 adolescents surveyed at ages 13, 16, 18, and 23 years. Prosmoking peer and family influences were risk factors for future smoking throughout adolescence, with family influences perhaps also operating indirectly through the adolescent's exposure to prosmoking peers. There were reciprocal associations of youth smoking with parental approval, peer smoking, and poor grades (but not delinquency), with youth smoking emerging as a stronger antecedent than consequence of these psychosocial factors. Few gender differences in these associations were observed. Implications of these findings for efforts to prevent youth smoking are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensions of impulsive behavior in adolescent smokers and nonsmokers.

Robust associations have been identified between impulsive personality characteristics and cigarette smoking during adolescents, indicating that impulsive behavior may play an important role in the initiation of cigarette smoking. The present study extended this research by using laboratory behavioral assessments to explore relationships between three specific dimensions of impulsive behavior (impulsive decision-making, inattention, and disinhibition) and adolescent cigarette smoking. Participants were male and female adolescent smokers (n = 50) and nonsmokers (n = 50). Adolescent smokers were more impulsive on a measure of decision-making; however, there were significant smoking status by gender interaction effects for impulsive inattention and disinhibition. Male smokers were most impulsive on the measure of inattention, but male smokers were least impulsive on the measure of disinhibition. Correlations between biomarkers of smoking and impulsive inattention and disinhibition were found for females but not males. The current findings, coupled with previous findings (Reynolds et al., 2007), indicate there may be robust gender difference in associations between certain types of impulsive behavior and cigarette smoking during adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A risk factor index predicting adolescent cigarette smoking: A 7-year longitudinal study.

The authors used longitudinal data to develop a risk factor index (RFI) for the prediction of smoking behavior in youth. Students were followed yearly from 6th through 12th grades in a prospective longitudinal study. Ten risk factors were identified and combined into an RFI. Data were analyzed with a generalized estimating equations approach. The RFI predicted both concurrent smoking and use of cigarette in the succeeding year. It further predicted whether a youth would smoke at any point during his or her school career. Prediction was better for boys than for girls. Furthermore, the RFI better predicted heavy smoking than any use of cigarettes. The RFI could be useful in selecting youth for intensive prevention and early intervention efforts. Results also suggest the importance of further examination of gender differences in smoking behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder on early adolescent substance use.

This study examined the interactive effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and conduct disorder (CD) diagnosis on early adolescent substance use in a cross-sectional study of 202 middle school students. ADHD diagnosis alone did not suggest increased risk for substance use, but more adolescents with both ADHD and CD reported use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs than did adolescents with either disorder alone. Dimensionally scored impulsivity-hyperactivity symptoms, not symptoms of inattention, appeared to account for the association with ADHD. Results illustrate the need to continue examination of the role of ADHD in the development of substance use and later abuse, especially as it relates to the onset of conduct problems in adolescence that mark liability for early onset substance abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent dispositions for antisocial behavior in context: The roles of neighborhood dangerousness and parental knowledge.

This study examined an ecological perspective on the development of antisocial behavior during adolescence, examining direct, additive, and interactive effects of child and both parenting and community factors in relation to youth problem behavior. To address this goal, the authors examined early adolescent dispositional qualities as predictors of boys’ antisocial behavior within the context of parents’ knowledge of adolescent activities and neighborhood dangerousness. Antisocial behavior was examined using a multimethod latent construct that included self-reported delinquency, symptoms of conduct disorder, and court petitions in a sample of 289 boys from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds who were followed longitudinally from early childhood through adolescence. Results demonstrated direct and additive findings for child prosociality, daring, and negative emotionality, which were qualified by interactions between daring and neighborhood dangerousness, and between prosociality and parental knowledge. The findings have implications for preventive intervention approaches that address the interplay of dispositional and contextual factors to prevent delinquent behavior in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD.

Children diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n=142) were prospectively monitored into adolescence (13-18 years old) to evaluate their risk for elevated substance use relative to same-aged adolescents without ADHD (n=100). Probands reported higher levels of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use than did controls. Group differences were apparent for alcohol symptom scores but not for alcohol or marijuana disorder diagnoses. Within probands, severity of childhood inattention symptoms predicted multiple substance use outcomes; childhood oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder (ODD/CD) symptoms predicted illicit drug use and CD symptoms. Persistence of ADHD and adolescent CD were each associated with elevated substance use behaviors relative to controls. Further study of the mediating mechanisms that explain risk for early substance use and abuse in children with ADHD is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The natural history of cigarette smoking: Predicting young-adult smoking outcomes from adolescent smoking patterns.

Assessed the magnitude of risk that adolescent cigarette smoking carries for adult smoking, using longitudinal data from 4,156 Ss surveyed originally during Grades 6–12 and followed up after completion of high school. Even infrequent experimentation (i.e., smoking only a few cigarettes) in adolescence significantly raised the risk for adult smoking by a factor of 16 compared to nonsmoking adolescents. Relative risk was also increased by early onset of smoking and by a stable, uninterrupted course from experimentation to regular smoking. Data support the importance of primary prevention programs directed at adolescent populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eating pathology among adolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The authors investigated prospectively assessed eating pathology (body image dissatisfaction and bulimia nervosa symptoms) among an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of adolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder--combined type (ADHD--C; n=93), ADHD--inattentive type (ADHD--I; n=47), and a comparison group (n=88). The sample, initially ages 6-12 years, participated in a 5-year longitudinal study (92% retention rate). After statistical control of relevant covariates, girls with ADHD--C at baseline showed more eating pathology at follow-up than did comparison girls; girls with ADHD--I were intermediate between these two groups. Baseline impulsivity symptoms, as opposed to hyperactivity and inattention, best predicted adolescent eating pathology. With statistical control of ADHD, baseline peer rejection and parent- child relationship problems also predicted adolescent eating pathology. The association between punitive parenting in childhood and pathological eating behaviors in adolescence was stronger for girls with ADHD than for comparison girls. Results are discussed in terms of the expansion of longitudinal research on ADHD to include female-relevant domains of impairment, such as eating pathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among middle adolescents: Prospective associations and intrapersonal and interpersonal influences.

Using data from a 4-wave longitudinal study with a school-based sample of 1,218 middle adolescents, the authors investigated the directionality (e.g., unidirectionality and bidirectionality) of the prospective relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette use within the context of potential confounding variables and common and unique intrapersonal and interpersonal predictors. Findings indicated that serious and persistent depressive symptoms were prospective predictors of increased cigarette use across time, after controlling for baseline levels of smoking. Similarly. heavy and persistent smoking prospectively predicted increases in depressive symptoms. Intrapersonal and interpersonal predictors of crosstemporal changes in depressive symptoms and cigarette use were more unique than common. Latent growth curve modeling indicated a quadratic trend in adolescent cigarette smoking across time with an initial acceleration followed by a deceleration, though there was substantial intraindividual variation in individual trajectories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aggressive behavior in childhood and early adolescence: an ecological-developmental perspective on youth violence

This article reviews recent research on the development of aggressive behavior in childhood and early adolescence using an ecological perspective that focuses on social development in the family, school, peer group, and community. Special emphasis is placed on family processes and early childhood peer relations that appear to tip developmental trajectories toward social rejection at school and use of aggression to achieve social goals in interpersonal relationships. The article discusses implications for preventing youth violence.     

Prospective follow-up of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into adolescence: Evidence for continuing cross-domain impairment.

The authors performed 5-year prospective follow-up (retention rate = 92%) with an ethnically diverse sample of girls, aged 11-18 years, who had been diagnosed in childhood with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; N = 140) and a matched comparison group (N = 88). Hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were more likely to abate than inattentive symptoms. Across multiple domains of symptoms and functional impairment, girls with ADHD continued to display deficits of moderate to large effect size in relation to the comparison girls, but few differences emerged between the inattentive versus combined types. Follow-up effects withstood statistical control of crucial covariates for most outcomes, meaning that there were specific effects of childhood ADHD on follow-up status; in other instances, baseline disruptive disorders accounted for adolescent effects. For outcomes identical at baseline and follow-up, girls with ADHD showed more improvement across time than comparison girls (except for math achievement). Overall, ADHD in girls portends continuing impairment 5 years after childhood ascertainment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood ADHD and Adolescent Substance Use: An Examination of Deviant Peer Group Affiliation as a Risk Factor.

Deviant peer group affiliation was evaluated as a risk factor for substance use in adolescents with childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Results showed that deviant peer affiliation mediated the relationship between ADHD and substance use, suggesting that children with ADHD are more likely than children without ADHD to become involved with deviant peers and, as a result, more likely to use substances. Moreover, the relationship between deviant peer affiliation and substance use was stronger for adolescents with ADHD, suggesting that once they are immersed in a deviant peer group, adolescents with ADHD are more vulnerable to the negative social influences of that group. This study is the first step in identifying high-risk pathways from childhood ADHD to substance use in adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Academic underachievement, attention deficits, and aggression: Comorbidity and implications for intervention.

Although comorbidity with specific learning disabilities is less frequent than commonly reported, externalizing behavior disorders, particularly attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), often overlap with various indices of academic underachievement during childhood. Furthermore, by adolescence, delinquency is clearly associated with school failure. Because the link between behavioral and learning problems often appears before formal schooling, and because the comorbid problems predict a negative course, early intervention is a necessity. Controlled treatment investigations with youngsters who show these combined problems are rare, and such studies present a host of methodologic and practical problems. Issues are discussed surrounding multimodality treatment programs and the potential for long-term interventions to break cycles of school failure and externalizing behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)