Turbulence-induced measurement errors in coherent differential absorption lidar ground systems

The presence of atmospheric refractive turbulence makes it necessary to use simulations of beam propagation to examine the uncertainty added to the differential absorption lidar (DIAL) measurement process of a practical heterodyne lidar. The inherent statistic uncertainty of coherent return fluctuations in ground lidar systems profiling the atmosphere along slant paths with large elevation angles translates into a lessening of accuracy and sensitivity of any practical DIAL measurement. This technique opens the door to consider realistic, nonuniform atmospheric conditions for any DIAL instrument configuration.     

Monitoring O3 with solar-blind Raman lidars

The benefits of retrieving ozone concentration profiles by a use of a single Raman signal rather than the Raman differential absorption lidar (DIAL) technique are investigated by numerical simulations applied either to KrF- (248 nm) or to quadrupled Nd:YAG- (266 nm) based Raman lidars, which are used for both daytime and nighttime monitoring of the tropospheric water-vapor mixing ratio. It is demonstrated that ozone concentration profiles of adequate accuracy and spatial and temporal resolution can be retrieved under low aerosol loading by a single Raman lidar because of the large value of the ozone absorption cross section both at 248 nm and at 266 nm. Then experimental measurements of Raman signals provided by the KrF-based lidar operating at the University of Lecce (40 degrees 20'N, 18 degrees 6'E) are used to retrieve ozone concentration profiles by use of the Raman DIAL technique and the nitrogen Raman signal.     

NASA multipurpose airborne DIAL system and measurements of ozone and aerosol profiles

An airborne differential absorption lidar (DIAL) system has been developed for the remote measurement of gas and aerosol profiles in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. The multipurpose DIAL system can operate from 280 to 1064 nm for measurements of ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, water vapor, temperature,pressure, and aerosol backscattering. The laser transmitter consists of two narrow linewidth Nd: YAG pumped dye lasers with automatic wavelength control. The DIAL wavelengths are transmitted with a 00-,usec temporal separation to reduce receiver system complexity. A coaxial receiver system is used to collect and optically separate the DIAL and aerosol lidar returns. Photomultiplier tubes detect the backscattered laser returns after optical filtering, and the analog signals from three tubes are digitized and stored on high-speed magnetic tape. Real-time gas concentration profiles or aerosol backscatter distributions are calculated and displayed for experiment control. Operational parameters for the airborne DIAL system are presented for measurements of ozone, water vapor, and aerosols in the 290-, 720-, and 600-nm wavelength regions, respectively. The first ozone profile measurements from an aircraft using the DIAL technique are discussed in this paper. Comparisons between DIAL and in situ ozone measurements show agreement to within +/-5 ppbv in the lower troposphere. Lidar aerosol data obtained simultaneously with DIAL ozone measurements are presented for a flight over Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay. DIAL system performance for profiling ozone in a tropopause folding experiment is evaluated, and the applications of the DIAL system to regional and global-scale tropospheric investigations are discussed.     

Ultraviolet DIAL measurements of O3 profiles in regions of spatially inhomogeneous aerosols

The differential absorption lidar (DIAL) technique generally assumes that atmospheric optical scattering is the same at the two laser wavelengths used in the DIAL measurement of a gas concentration profile. Errors can arise in this approach when the wavelengths are significantly separated, and there is a range dependence in the aerosol scattering distribution. This paper discusses the errors introduced by large DIAL wavelength separations and spatial inhomogeneity of aerosols in the atmosphere. A Bernoulli solution for determining the relative distribution of aerosol backscattering in the UV region is presented, and scattering ratio boundary values for these solutions are discussed. The results of this approach are used to derive a backscatter correction to the standard DIAL analysis method. It is shown that for the worst cases of severe range dependence in aerosol backscattering, the residual errors in the corrected DIAL O3 measurements were <10 ppbv for DIAL wavelengths at 286 and 300 nm.     

Analytical differentiation of the differential-absorption-lidar data distorted by noise

A method of analytical differentiation is developed for processing differential absorption lidar (DIAL) data. The method is based on simple analytical transformation of the DIAL on and off signal ratio. The derivatives consequently are found for either individual data points or local zones of the measurement range. The method makes possible the separation of local zones of interest and the separate investigation of these. The smoothing level is established by the selected value of the exponent in a transformation formula rather than by the selection of the resolution range. The method does not require the calculation of local signal increments. This reduces significantly the high-frequency noise in the measured concentration. The method is general and can be used for different experimental data, including inelastic (Raman) lidar data. The processing technique is practical and does not require a determination of the solution for a large set of algebraic equations. It is based on the simple repetition of the same type of calculations with different constants. The method can easily be implemented for practical computations.     

Effect of the differential geometric form factor on differential absorption lidar measurements with topographical targets

When the integrated differential absorption lidar (DIAL) technique is used to perform concentration measurements over long distances, the alignment between on and off laser beams becomes important. Here, through analysis of alignment error and of the corresponding differential geometric form factor, the effect of misalignment between off and on lines on performance of integrated concentration measurements by a coaxial DIAL system is considered.     

Application of statistical methods to the determination of slope in lidar data

Assumptions made in the analysis of both Raman lidar measurements of aerosol extinction and differential absorption lidar (DIAL) measurements of an absorbing species are tested. Statistical analysis techniques are used to enhance the estimation of aerosol extinction and aerosol extinction error that is usually handled using a linear model. It is determined that the most probable extinction value can differ from that of the linear assumption by up to 10% and that differences larger than 50% can occur in the calculation of extinction error. Ignoring error in the number density alters the calculated extinction by up to 3% and that of extinction error by up to 10%. The preceding results were obtained using the least-squares technique. The least-squares technique assumes that the data being regressed are normally distributed. However, the quantity that is usually regressed in aerosol extinction and DIAL calculations is not normally distributed. A technique is presented that allows the required numerical derivative to be determined by regressing only normally distributed data. The results from this technique are compared with the usual procedure. The same concerns raised here regarding appropriate choice of a model in the context of aerosol extinction calculations should apply to DIAL calculations of absorbing species such as water vapor or ozone as well because the numerical derivative that is required is identical.     

Analysis of transmission spectra for large ratio of emission-to-absorber linewidths: extension of differential absorption lidar analysis for finite laser linewidths

A simple algorithm is presented for the analysis of transmission spectra provided by a lidar with an emission linewidth that is comparable with or larger than the absorption features of interest. The spreading of line shapes as seen by the lidar precludes use of the classical differential absorption lidar (DIAL) approach. However, it is assumed that, as with the DIAL method, small spectral intervals exist where single absorbers are dominant, and an inversion process for the transmission over such intervals is carried out for the absorber concentration. A second-stage algorithm based on singular-value decomposition is also provided to improve further the concentration estimates. An example situation for use of the algorithms is included wherein the objective is to estimate the concentration of a known trace gas in a composite transmission spectrum in the mid-infrared, where the dominant absorbers are water vapor and methane.     

Improved speckle statistics in coherent differential absorption lidar with in-fiber wavelength multiplexing

Remote detection of gaseous pollutants and other atmospheric constituents can be achieved with differential absorption lidar (DIAL) methods. The technique relies on the transmission of two or more laser wavelengths and exploits absorption features in the target gas by measuring the ratio of their detected powers to determine gas concentration. A common mode of operation is when the transmitter and receiver are collocated, and the absorption is measured over a return trip by a randomly scattering topographic target. Hence, in coherent DIAL, speckle fluctuation leads to a large uncertainty in the detected powers unless the signal is averaged over multiple correlation times, i.e., over many independent speckles. We examine a continuous-wave coherent DIAL system in which the laser wavelengths are transmitted and received by the same single-mode optical fibers. This ensures that the two wavelengths share a common spatial mode, which, for certain transmitter and target parameters, enables highly correlated speckle fluctuations to be readily achieved in practice. For a DIAL system, this gives the potential for improved accuracy in a given observation time. A theoretical analysis quantifies this benefit as a function of the degree of correlation between the two time series (which depends on wavelength separation and target depth). The results are compared with both a numerical simulation and a laboratory-based experiment.     

Altitude range resolution of differential absorption lidar ozone profiles

A method is described for the empirical determination of altitude range resolutions of ozone profiles obtained by differential absorption lidar (DIAL) analysis. The algorithm is independent of the implementation of the DIAL analysis, in particular of the type and order of the vertical smoothing filter applied. An interpretation of three definitions of altitude range resolution is given on the basis of simulations carried out with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ozone DIAL analysis program, SO3ANL. These definitions yield altitude range resolutions that differ by as much as a factor of 2. It is shown that the altitude resolution calculated by SO3ANL, and reported with all Jet Propulsion Laboratory lidar ozone profiles, corresponds closely to the full width at half-maximum of a retrieved ozone profile if an impulse function is used as the input ozone profile.     

Future performance of ground-based and airborne water-vapor differential absorption lidar. I. Overview and theory

The performance of a future advanced water-vapor differential absorption lidar (DIAL) system is discussed. It is shown that the system has to be a direct-detection system operating in the rhovarsigmatau band of water vapor in the 940-nm wavelength region. The most important features of the DIAL technique are introduced: its clear-air measurement capability, its flexibility, and its simultaneous high resolution and accuracy. It is demonstrated that such a DIAL system can contribute to atmospheric sciences over a large range of scales and over a large variety of humidity conditions. An extended error analysis is performed, and errors (e.g., speckle noise) are included that previously were not been discussed in detail and that become important for certain system designs and measurement conditions. The applicability of the derived equation is investigated by comparisons with real data. Excellent agreement is found.     

Rotational vibrational-rotational Raman differential absorption lidar for atmospheric ozone measurements: methodology and experiment

A single-laser Raman differential absorption lidar (DIAL) for ozone measurements in clouds is proposed. An injection-locked XeCl excimer laser serves as the radiation source. The ozone molecule number density is calculated from the differential absorption of the anti-Stokes rotational Raman return signals from molecular nitrogen and oxygen as the on-resonance wavelength and the vibrational-rotational Raman backscattering from molecular nitrogen or oxygen as the off-resonance wavelength. Model calculations show that the main advantage of the new rotational vibrational-rotational (RVR) Raman DIAL over conventional Raman DIAL is a 70-85% reduction in the wavelength-dependent effects of cloud-particle scattering on the measured ozone concentration; furthermore the complexity of the apparatus is reduced substantially. We describe a RVR Raman DIAL setup that uses a narrow-band interference-filter polychromator as the lidar receiver. Single-laser ozone measurements in the troposphere and lower stratosphere are presented, and it is shown that on further improvement of the receiver performance, ozone measurements in clouds are attainable with the filter-polychromator approach.     

Preliminary measurements with an automated compact differential absorption lidar for the profiling of water vapor

The design and preliminary tests of an automated differential absorption lidar (DIAL) that profiles water vapor in the lower troposphere are presented. The instrument, named CODI (for compact DIAL), has been developed to be eye safe, low cost, weatherproof, and portable. The lidar design and its unattended operation are described. Nighttime intercomparisons with in situ sensors and a radiosonde are shown. Desired improvements to the lidar, including a more powerful laser, are also discussed.     

Ground-based differential absorption lidar for water-vapor and temperature profiling: methodology

A comprehensive formulation of the differential absorption lidar (DIAL) methodology is presented that explicitly includes details of the spectral distributions of both the transmitted and the backscattered light. The method is important for high-accuracy water-vapor retrievals and in particular for temperature measurements. Probability estimates of the error that is due to Doppler-broadened Rayleigh scattering based on an extended experimental data set are presented, as is an analytical treatment of errors that are due to averaging in the nonlinear retrieval scheme. System performance requirements are derived that show that water-vapor retrievals with an accuracy of better than 5% and temperature retrievals with an accuracy of better than 1 K in the entire troposphere are feasible if the error that results from Rayleigh-Doppler correction can be avoided. A modification of the DIAL technique, high-spectral-resolution DIAL avoids errors that are due to Doppler-broadened Rayleigh backscatter and permits simultaneous water-vapor and wind measurements with the same system.     

Experimental comparison of heterodyne and direct detection for pulsed differential absorption CO2 lidar

A pulsed dual-wavelength dual-CO2-laser differential-absorption lidar (DIAL) system has been developed which permits simultaneous heterodyne and direct detection of the same lidar returns. This system has been used to make an experimental comparison of the SNRs and statistical and temporal characteristics of the DIAL returns from several topographic targets. These results were found to be in general agreement with theory and were used to quantify the relative merits of the two detection techniques. The measured parameter values were applied to an analytical treatment to predict system trade-offs for the remote sensing of atmospheric species, with application to both path-averaged and range-resolved measurements.     

Spaceborne profiling of atmospheric temperature and particle extinction with pure rotational Raman lidar and of relative humidity in combination with differential absorption lidar: performance simulations

The performance of a spaceborne temperature lidar based on the pure rotational Raman (RR) technique in the UV has been simulated. Results show that such a system deployed onboard a low-Earth-orbit satellite would provide global-scale clear-sky temperature measurements in the troposphere and lower stratosphere with precisions that satisfy World Meteorological Organization (WMO) threshold observational requirements for numerical weather prediction and climate research applications. Furthermore, nighttime temperature measurements would still be within the WMO threshold observational requirements in the presence of several cloud structures. The performance of aerosol extinction measurements from space, which can be carried out simultaneously with temperature measurements by RR lidar, is also assessed. Furthermore, we discuss simulations of relative humidity measurements from space obtained from RR temperature measurements and water-vapor data measured with the differential absorption lidar (DIAL) technique.     

受激拉曼增益激光雷达测量CO2气体

激光雷达探测大气中的CO2气体目前还处在探索阶段,在差分吸收原理基础上,利用气体的受激拉曼散射增益效应,设计出测量CO2气体的非线性拉曼激光雷达系统,并模拟实验得到了增益开关两种状态下的光子计数信号,从而反演出CO2气体的浓度分布结果,在垂直方向上,CO2气体浓度随距离变化不大,合肥地区的浓度含量大约在400ppm左右。     

Error reduction in laser remote sensing: combined effects of cross correlation and signal averaging

A systematic analysis is presented of the extent to which the accuracy of a differential-absorption lidar (DIAL) measurement may be improved by using the combined effects of signal averaging and temporal cross correlation. Previous studies which considered these effects separately are extended by incorporating both effects into a single analytical framework. In addition, experimental results involving lidar returns from a diffusely reflecting target using a dual-CO2 laser DIAL system with both heterodyne and direct detection are presented. These results are shown to be in good agreement with the theoretical analysis and help establish the limits of accuracy achievable under various experimental conditions.     

Side-line tunable laser transmitter for differential absorption lidar measurements of CO2: design and application to atmospheric measurements

A 2 microm wavelength, 90 mJ, 5 Hz pulsed Ho laser is described with wavelength control to precisely tune and lock the wavelength at a desired offset up to 2.9 GHz from the center of a CO(2) absorption line. Once detuned from the line center the laser wavelength is actively locked to keep the wavelength within 1.9 MHz standard deviation about the setpoint. This wavelength control allows optimization of the optical depth for a differential absorption lidar (DIAL) measuring atmospheric CO(2) concentrations. The laser transmitter has been coupled with a coherent heterodyne receiver for measurements of CO(2) concentration using aerosol backscatter; wind and aerosols are also measured with the same lidar and provide useful additional information on atmospheric structure. Range-resolved CO(2) measurements were made with <2.4% standard deviation using 500 m range bins and 6.7 min? (1000 pulse pairs) integration time. Measurement of a horizontal column showed a precision of the CO(2) concentration to <0.7% standard deviation using a 30 min? (4500 pulse pairs) integration time, and comparison with a collocated in situ sensor showed the DIAL to measure the same trend of a diurnal variation and to detect shorter time scale CO(2) perturbations. For vertical column measurements the lidar was setup at the WLEF tall tower site in Wisconsin to provide meteorological profiles and to compare the DIAL measurements with the in situ sensors distributed on the tower up to 396 m height. Assuming the DIAL column measurement extending from 153 m altitude to 1353 m altitude should agree with the tower in situ sensor at 396 m altitude, there was a 7.9 ppm rms difference between the DIAL and the in situ sensor using a 30 min? rolling average on the DIAL measurement.     

Optimum detection of multiple vapor materials with frequency-agile lidar

Differential absorption lidar (DIAL) is a well-established technology for estimating the concentration and its path integral CL of vapor materials using two closely spaced wavelengths. The recent development of frequency-agile lasers (FAL's) with as many as 60 wavelengths that can be rapidly scanned motivates the need for detection and estimation algorithms that are optimal for lidar employing these new sources. I derive detection and multimaterial CL estimation algorithms for FAL applications using the likelihood ratio test methodology of multivariate statistical inference theory. Three model sets of assumptions are considered with regard to the spectral properties of the backscatter from either topographic or aerosol targets. The calculations are illustrated through both simulated and actual lidar data.