Lamb wave-based quantitative identification of delamination in CF/EP composite structures using artificial neural algorithm

Delamination in composite structures plays a major role in lowering structural strength and stiffness, consequently downgrading system integrity and reliability. A Lamb wave-based quantitative identification technique for delamination in CF/EP composite structures was established. Propagation of Lamb waves in a series of composite laminates, individually bearing a delamination, was evaluated using dynamic FEM analyses. Taking advantage of wavelet transform and artificial neural algorithms, an Intelligent Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition (ISPPR) package was developed, by which the spectrographic characteristics of simulated Lamb wave signals in the time-frequency domain were extracted and digitised as Digital Damage Fingerprints (DDF), to construct a Damage Parameters Database (DPD). The DPD was then used offline to train a multi-layer feedforward artificial neural network (ANN) under supervision of an error-backpropagation (BP) algorithm. Assisted by an active online structural health monitoring (AO-SHM) system with an active piezoelectric actuator/sensor network, the proposed methodology was validated online by identifying actual delaminations in CF/EP (T650/F584) quasi-isotropic composite laminates.     

A New Inverse Algorithm for Tomographic Reconstruction of Damage Images Using Lamb Waves

Lamb wave tomography (LWT) is a potential and efficient technique for non-destructive tomographic reconstruction of damage images in structural components or materials. A new two-stage inverse algorithm with a small amount of scanning data for quickly reconstructing damage images in aluminum and CFRP laminated plates was proposed in this paper. Due to its high sensitivity to damages, the amplitude decrease of transmitted Lamb waves after travelling through the inspected region was employed as a key signal parameter related to the attenuation of Lamb waves in propagation routes. A through-thickness circular hole and a through-thickness elliptical hole in two aluminum plates, and an impact-induced invisible internal delamination in a CFRP laminated plate were used to validate the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed method. It was concluded that the present new algorithm was capable of reconstructing the images of the above mentioned various damages successfully with much less experimental data compared with those needed by some traditional techniques.     

Damage assessment in layered composites using spectral analysis and Lamb wave

Piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type are commonly used for structural health monitoring (SHM) techniques. But, there is a disadvantage to use piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type in Lamb wave application. Due to the symmetric and antisymmetric Lamb wave modes generated by the surface mounted piezo-ceramic transducers simultaneously, the received signals are very complex and it is difficult to extract damage information from the signals.

In this paper, the practical method for SHM was proposed using piezo-ceramic transducers of the surface mounted type and Lamb wave. In order to overcome the difficulties in the signal processing of the simultaneous modes, the symmetric and antisymmetric modes were separated by using the two sensors bonded on the opposite surfaces at the same point. Also, spectral analyses of the separated symmetric and antisymmetric Lamb waves showed that each mode propagated with different frequency characteristics in the exciting frequency range.

By making use of these findings, the changes of power spectrum density in characteristic frequency band of symmetric and antisymmetric modes are proportional to the delamination size in quasi-isotropic Gr/Ep laminates. Therefore, this paper presents the damage assessment technique to extract damage information from the complicated PZT signals that could not be interpreted in time domain.     

复合材料板脱层损伤的时间反转成像监测

基于时间反转理论,对主动Lamb波复合材料结构脱层损伤成像监测技术进行了研究。分析了时间反转方法的理论基础以及对波源的信号聚焦过程。根据信号传播自身的特性,研究采用时间反转聚焦方法使损伤散射信号能量叠加放大,从而提高信号的信噪比,分析给出了具体的损伤信号时间反转聚焦增强过程;利用时间反转法对波源的自适应聚焦能力,重建信号传播波动图,通过信号聚焦显示损伤位置和区域。在玻璃纤维复合材料板上的真实损伤实验结果表明,该方法能有效提高损伤散射信号的能量,较为准确地监测出损伤的位置、大致范围等特征。     

Damage evaluation of laminated composite material using a new acoustic emission Lamb-based and finite element techniques

In this paper, a very promising procedure is proposed to evaluate delamination using Acoustic Emission (AE) technique in composite laminates. First, a new procedure was developed to decompose the fundamental Lamb wave modes in small size specimens. The damage mechanisms in End Notched Flexure (ENF) in woven and unidirectional specimens were then discriminated using Fuzzy Clustering Method (FCM). Afterwards, the crack-arrest phenomenon was examined in each specimen. After that, experimental and Cohesive Zone Modeling (CZM) techniques were conducted to characterize the delamination using ENF specimens. The results showed how, it is possible to successfully decrease the effect of propagating media such as attenuation of AE signals using the new proposed methodology. As a final point, the results of this study could lead to efficiently distinguishing different damages in laminated composite using AE Lamb-based technique.     

Mode-selective excitation and detection of ultrasonic guided waves for delamination detection in laminated aluminum plates

Selective modes of guided Lamb waves are generated in a laminated aluminum plate for damage detection using a broadband piezoelectric transducer structured with a rigid electrode. Appropriate excitation frequencies and modes for inspection are selected from theoretical and experimental dispersion curves. Dispersion curves are obtained experimentally by short time Fourier transform of the transient signals. Sensitivity of antisymmetric and symmetric modes for delamination detection are investigated. The antisymmetric mode is found to be more reliable for delamination detection. Unlike other studies, in which the attenuation of the propagating waves is related to the extent of the internal damage, in this investigation, the changes in the time-of-flight (TOF) of guided Lamb waves are related to the damage progression. The mode conversion phenomenon of Lamb waves during progressive delamination is investigated. Close matching between the theoretical and experimentally derived dispersion curves and TOF assures the reliability of the results presented here.     

基于概率损伤算法的复合材料板空气耦合Lamb波扫描成像

采用非接触空耦传感器在准各向同性复合材料板中激励出单一的Lamb波模态,用于分层缺陷的扫描检测。扫描时,激励和接收传感器置于复合材料板同侧并相对倾斜布置,传感器沿2个正交方向同步线性扫描,得到不同位置的检测信号。对不同扫描路径下的检测信号进行连续小波变换,提取激励频率下的小波系数包络信号,对分层缺陷进行成像。在此基础上,利用概率损伤算法定义损伤指数,结合不同方向的损伤指数实现分层缺陷成像。采用全加法和全乘法对2个正交扫描方向得到的成像结果进行数据融合,实现了分层缺陷的定位和重构。并在成像算法中引入阈值,进一步提高了分层缺陷的定位精度以及重构质量。     

CSM在基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中的应用

在基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中往往不可避免地遇到结构中多个损伤引起的反射波信号相干问题而对检测精度造成影响。考虑到阵列信号处理中的空间谱估计可以对信号源进行辨别和定位,尤其是在信号的波达方向(Direction of Arrival, DOA)估计上的优越性,将其应用于基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中以获得准确的结构损伤信息。于是,该文采用空间谱估计中相干信号子空间方法(Coherent Signal Subspace Method, CSM)解决了相干信号问题。以一个损伤结构的仿真分析为例,验证了CSM方法在基于Lamb波的结构损伤检测中处理相干信号的可行性。结果表明,无论是结构损伤和边界反射引起的信号相干或两个结构损伤引起的信号相干,依然可以通过该方法获得准确的结构损伤信息。     

碳纤维增强复合材料层合板Lamb波衰减特性研究

为提取适用于碳纤维增强复合材料层合板声发射故障诊断的模态信号,利用三维弹性理论及传递矩阵法获得Lamb波的频散曲线。以碳纤维增强复合材料层合板为研究对象搭建实验平台,改变断铅激励位置从而获得不同声发射信号。对采集的声发射信号进行小波尺度谱分析,结合频散曲线分离出不同模式的Lamb波,分别研究其不同频率的幅度及能量衰减特性。实验结果表明,较其它信号,低频率S0波幅度信号衰减速度较低,对碳纤维增强复合材料层合板的声发射故障诊断研究具有较大优势。     

Effects of local stiffness changes and delamination on Lamb wave transmission using surface-mounted piezoelectric transducers

The paper presents a set of numerical results on the use of surface mounted piezoelectric transducers to analyse the effects of impact damage and delamination of plate-like structures on the Lamb wave mode. The effects of the size, properties and orientation of the damage upon a propagating Lamb wave is qualitatively determined. In this paper, impact damage was simulated by a local change in the stiffness of the material in the structure and a delamination. The effects on the transmission of the incident Lamb wave when it propagates through a region of change in density are analysed. This paper will also demonstrate how the properties of a propagating Lamb wave can be affected by the existence of a delamination in a plate.     

基于Shannon 复数小波的复合材料结构时间反转聚焦多损伤成像方法

研究了一种基于压电传感器阵列和主动Lamb 波的结构损伤成像方法,有助于克服Lamb 波在板结构中、特别是在复合材料板结构中存在的频散、多种模式及模式转换的现象给结构健康监测带来的困难。分析了结构多损伤散射信号的时间反转聚焦原理,在此基础上提出了一种基于Shannon 复数小波和时间反转聚焦的信号合成成像方法。该方法中,确定Lamb 波响应信号的到达时刻是信号能够准确聚焦的关键因素之一。提出了利用Shannon 复数小波变换计算Lamb 波响应信号到达时刻的方法。在碳纤维复合材料板结构上对整套信号合成成像方法进行了验证。研究结果表明,该方法能够有效地对同一个监测区域中的多个损伤进行成像定位。相对于30 cm ×30 cm 的监测区域,定位误差不超过2 cm。该方法有助于结构健康监测技术的工程应用。      

A damage identification technique for CF/EP composite laminates using distributed piezoelectric transducers

In this study, a damage identification approach was developed for carbon fibre/epoxy composite laminates with localized internal delamination. Propagation of the Lamb wave in laminates and its interaction with the delamination were examined. The fundamental symmetric Lamb wave mode, S₀, and the lowest order shear wave mode, S₀^′, were chosen to predict damage location. A real-time active diagnosis system was therefore established. This technique uses distributed piezoelectric transducers to generate and monitor the ultrasonic Lamb wave with narrowband frequency. The two-way switches were employed to minimize the number of transducers. A signal-processing scheme based on the time–frequency spectrographic analysis was utilised to extract useful diagnostic information. Also, an optimal identification method was applied on damage searching procedure to reduce errors and obtain the diagnostic results promptly. Experiments were conducted on [0/−45/45/90]_s CF/EP laminates to verify this diagnosis system. The results obtained show that satisfactory detection accuracy could be achieved.     

基于含金属芯压电纤维与Lamb波的一维结构损伤定位研究

含金属芯压电纤维(Metal-core Piezoelectric Ceramic Fiber,MPF)是一种新型压电功能器件.介绍了MPF的结构及其对圆形压电片激励Lamb波的传感响应模型.利用Gabor小波变换计算损伤反射信号到达时间延迟的原理,把MPF传感单一模式Lamb波在一维结构中进行了损伤定位研究.研究结果表明:MPF可以进行Lamb波的单一模式传感,采用Gabor小波变换计算损伤反射信号到达时间延迟效果较好,损伤定位精度较高.     

基于时间反转加权分布的复合材料Lamb波损伤成像

超声Lamb波是检测板状结构损伤的常用方法,然而碳纤维增强聚合物基复合材料（Carbon Fiber ReinforcedPlastics,CFRP）本身的各向异性会对Lamb波的损伤成像和定位造成很大的影响。且大多数检测方法均采用健康结构的检测信号作为参考信号,用差信号的方法来实现损伤成像,该过程容易受到待测结构和实验环境变化等外界因素的影响。针对该问题,采用时间反转和加权分布成像相结合的方法,将其应用在复合材料板状结构的Lamb波损伤检测和成像中。仿真结果表明,该方法能够有效地实现板中单源脱层损伤和多源脱层损伤的二维成像与定位,且具有较高的精度和准确性。     

Assessment of debonding in sandwich CF/EP composite beams using A0 Lamb wave at low frequency

The aim of this study is to quantitatively assess debonding in sandwich CF/EP composite structures with a honeycomb core using acoustic waves activated and captured by surface-mounted PZT elements. For experimental investigation, debonding was introduced at different locations in sandwich CF/EP composite beams. The fundamental anti-symmetric A₀ Lamb mode was excited at a low frequency. The transmitted and reflected wave signals in both surface panels were captured by PZT elements after interacting with the debonding damage and specimen boundaries. Aided by finite element analysis (FEA), the differences in wave propagation characteristics in sandwich composite beams and composite laminate (e.g. skin panel only) were investigated. The debonding location was assessed using the time-of-flight (ToF) of damage-reflected waves, and the severity of debonding was evaluated using both the magnitude of the reflected wave signal and the delay in the ToF of Lamb wave signals. Good correlation between the experimental and FEA simulation results was observed. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of Lamb waves activated and captured by surface-mounted PZT elements on either surface of sandwich composite structures in assessing debonding.     

不同边界条件下脱层对层合梁自然频率的影响

本文研究了层合梁的脱层现象对其自振频率的影响。文中详细分析了脱层对层合梁振动频率的敏感性及相互关系,特别对在不同边界条件下,脱层的特征对前8阶自振频率的影响进行了研究。计算与分析结果表明,脱层现象对第1、2阶自振频率具有较大的影响,其影响程度依赖于边界条件。而第3阶以后的频率则对脱层的敏感性较低。本文给出的关于层合梁自振频率变化规律和边界效应关系的结果,将对结构动力设计和无损检测提供理论依据和重要参考。     

Structural Health Monitoring Using Lamb Wave Reflections and Total Focusing Method for Image Reconstruction

This investigation aimed to adapt the total focusing method (TFM) algorithm (originated from the synthetic aperture focusing technique in digital signal processing) to accommodate a circular array of piezoelectric sensors (PZT) and characterise defects using guided wave signals for the development of a structural health monitoring system. This research presents the initial results of a broader study focusing on the development of a structural health monitoring (SHM) guided wave system for advance carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) composite materials. The current material investigated was an isotropic (aluminium) square plate with 16 transducers operating successively as emitter or sensor in pitch and catch configuration enabling the collection of 240 signals per assessment. The Lamb wave signals collected were tuned on the symmetric fundamental mode with a wavelength of 17 mm, by setting the excitation frequency to 300 kHz. The initial condition for the imaging system, such as wave speed and transducer position, were determined with post processing of the baseline signals through a method involving the identification of the waves reflected from the free edge of the plate. The imaging algorithm was adapted to accommodate multiple transmitting transducers in random positions. A circular defect of 10 mm in diameter was drilled in the plate, which is similar to the delamination size introduced by a low velocity impact event in a composite plate. Images were obtained by applying the TFM to the baseline signals, Test 1 data (corresponding to the signals obtained after introduction of the defect) and to the data derived from the subtraction of the baseline to the Test 1 signals. The result shows that despite the damage diameter being 40 % smaller than the wavelength, the image (of the subtracted baseline data) demonstrated that the system can locate where the waves were reflected from the defect boundary. In other words, the contour of the damaged area was highlighted enabling its size and position to be determined.     

基于含金属芯压电纤维与Lamb波的结构损伤定位研究

摘要：含金属芯压电纤维（Metal-core Piezoelectric Ceramic Fiber,MPF）是一种新型压电功能器件。介绍了MPF的结构及其对圆形压电片激励Lamb波的传感响应模型。利用Gabor小波变换计算损伤反射信号到达时间延迟的原理,把MPF传感单一模式Lamb波在一维结构中进行了损伤定位研究。研究结果表明：MPF可以进行Lamb波的单一模式传感,采用Gabor小波变换计算损伤反射信号到达时间延迟效果较好,损伤定位精度较高。     

Development of smart composite structures with small-diameter fiber Bragg grating sensors for damage detection: Quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing

The authors and Hitachi Cable, Ltd. have recently developed small-diameter optical fiber and its fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor for embedment inside a lamina of composite laminates without strength reduction. The outside diameters of the cladding and polyimide coating are 40 and 52 μm, respectively. First, a brief summary is presented for applications of small-diameter FBG sensors to damage monitoring in composite structures. Then, we propose a new damage detection system for quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing. In this system, a piezo-ceramic actuator generates Lamb waves in a CFRP laminate. After the waves propagate in the laminate, transmitted waves are received by an FBG sensor attached on or embedded in the laminate using a newly developed high-speed optical wavelength interrogation system. This system was applied to detect interlaminar delamination in CFRP cross-ply laminates. When the Lamb waves passed through the delamination, the amplitude decreased and a new wave mode appeared. These phenomena could be well simulated using a finite element analysis. From the changes in the amplitude ratio and the arrival time of the new mode depending on the delamination length, it was found that this system could evaluate the delamination length quantitatively. Furthermore, small-diameter FBG sensors were embedded in a double-lap type coupon specimen, and the debonding progress could be evaluated using the wavelet transform.     

Visualization of Fatigue Cracks at Structural Members Using a Pulsed Laser Scanning System

In this research, a noncontact nondestructive testing (NDT) method is proposed to detect the fatigue crack and to identify the location of the damage. To achieve this goal, Lamb wave propagation of a plate-like structure, which is induced by scanning laser source actuation system, is analyzed. A ND:YAG pulsed laser system is used to generate Lamb wave exerted at the multiple points of a steel coupon, and a piezoelectric sensor is installed to measure the structural responses. Multiple time signals measured by the piezoelectric sensor are aligned along the vertical and horizontal axes corresponding to laser impinging points so that 3-dimensional data can be constructed. Then, the 3-dimensional data is sliced along the time axis to visualize the wave propagation. The scattering of Lamb wave due to the damage can be described in the wave propagation image, and hence the damage can be localized and quantified. Damage-sensitive features, which are reflected wave from the damage, are clearly extracted by wave-number filtering based on the 3-dimensional Fourier transform of the visualized data. Structural members with fatigue cracks are investigated to verify the effectiveness and the robustness of the proposed NDT approach.