Characterization of Dual-Phase Steels Using Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Technique

The aim of this work is to nondestructively characterize the dual phase steels using the Magnetic Barkhausen Noise (MBN) method. By quenching of AISI 8620 steel specimens having two different starting microstructures, from various intercritical annealing temperatures (ICAT) in the ferrite-austenite region, the microstructures consisting of different volume fractions of martensite with morphological variations have been obtained. The microstructures were first conventionally characterized by metallographical investigations and hardness tests. Then, the MBN measurements were performed using a μSCAN commercial system. Good correlations between the martensite volume fraction, hardness and MBN emission have been obtained. MBN signal height clearly decreased as the ICAT, therefore the volume fraction of martensite increased. The effect of the initial microstructure prior to intercritical annealing has also been differentiated by the MBN measurements. It has been concluded that MBN method can be used as a useful tool for nondestructive characterization of dual phase steels.     

Evaluation of a Nitrided Case Depth by the Magnetic Barkhausen Noise

Applicability of magnetic methods for non-destructive evaluation of plasma nitrided cases was investigated comprehensively. Nitrided layers of 60–800 \(~\upmu \hbox {m}\) thicknesses were produced on a 16MnCr5 steel surface varying the plasma temperature, the nitriding time and atmosphere. Low-frequency Barkhausen noise was measured by a unique laboratory system to obtain physically grounded data. The laboratory measurements were performed at the triangular waveforms of the magnetizing voltage and the surface magnetic field. A typical rms envelope with a single peak positioned near the hysteresis coercive field was obtained for the unnitrided homogeneous sample. All nitrided samples with the hardened surface layer demonstrated an additional envelope peak at higher fields. Deeper nitridation suppressed both envelope peaks equally making the classical rms parameter sensitive to variation of the nitrided case depth. An industrial method of detection of the Barkhausen noise was tested for comparison using a commercial Rollscan device. The industrial measurements gave a single-peak envelope for all studied samples and a lower depth sensitivity of the rms parameter. Bulk testing methods, the magnetic hysteresis and the magneto-acoustic emission, were not able to detect the nitrided cases.     

The Principles of Depth Analysis of Surface Hardened Layers by the Magnetic Noise Method

Abstract

Theoretical and experimental results useful for layer-by-layer depth analysis of the properties of surface-hardened layers in steels are presented. The design of an apparatus for this purpose is discussed.     

Multi-parameter Evaluation of Magnetic Barkhausen Noise in Carbon Steel

The sensitivity of magnetic Barkhausen noise to many factors has limited its potential application for basic material characterization and detection of residual stress in carbon steel, a common structural material. The present work investigates Barkhausen noise response in plain carbon steel under conditions of varying carbon content, applied elastic stress and different magnetization level. The surface Barkhausen noise measurement system uses a feedback for controlling the flux waveform, which facilitates reproducibility of measurements and also permits extraction of additional parameters from the B–H loop of magnetic circuit. Barkhausen noise parameters correlate with known material parameters, such as coercivity, which vary with carbon content and stress. These results demonstrate the potential for in-situ characterization of carbon steel.     

Monitoring the Microstructural Evolution in Spheroidized Steels by Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Measurements

The aim of this study is to monitor nondestructively the degree of spheroidization in steels by Magnetic Barkhausen Noise (MBN) method. Various series of specimens consisting of either lamellar pearlite or partially/completely spheroidized carbides were produced from AISI 1060 steel by appropriate heat treatments. All specimens were characterized by metallographic examinations, hardness and MBN measurements. The results show that MBN signals are very sensitive to the variations in the microstructure caused by the spheroidizing heat treatment. The change of microstructure, from coarse lamellar carbides to uniformly dispersed spherical carbides in ferrite matrix, is reflected as higher Barkhausen activity due to less effective pinning of domain walls.     

Non-destructive Flaw Mapping of Steel Surfaces by the Continuous Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Method: Detection of Plastic Deformation

This paper reports the use of a non-destructive scanning technique to identify plastic deformation defects generated in steel. The technique is based on measurement of continuous magnetic Barkhausen noise (CMBN). In the experiments described here, surfaces with plastic deformations produced by crushing stresses in a 1070 steel are scanned, and the influence of probe configuration, coil type, scanner speed, applied magnetic field and the frequency band used for the analysis on the effectiveness of the technique is studied. A moving smoothing window based on a second order statistical moment is used to analyze the time signal. The results show that the method can detect the position of plastic deformation defects and distinguish between their amplitudes.     

Characterization of Austempered Ductile Iron Through Barkhausen Noise Measurements

The outstanding mechanical properties of austempered ductile irons (ADI) are linked to the microstructure of the matrix obtained by subjecting a ductile iron with an appropriate composition to a heat treatment called austempering. Then the microstructure of the matrix consists of bainitic ferrite with different volume fractions of retained austenite. The aim of this work is to use the magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) as a nondestructive method for characterizing the microstructure of ADI. First, it is shown that the amplitude and position of the peak-shaped MBN response is quite sensitive to the microstructure of the matrix of ductile irons. Thus each type of constituent (equiaxial ferrite, pearlite, martensite or bainite) exhibits a typical response and, in turn, it can be identified from the MBN response. Furthermore, a good correlation is found between MBN signal parameters and ADI heat treatment parameters, indicating that MBN is also quite sensitive to fine evolutions of the microstructure of ADI. MBN peak position is especially sensitive to the type of bainite, whereas peak amplitude is linked to the progress of the bainite reaction. Hence MBN measurements appear to be a powerful tool to assess some important microstructural features of ADI castings.     

Characterization and Reduction of Magnetic Noise Due to Saturation in Induction Machines

This paper derives the analytical characterization of Maxwell radial vibrations due to saturation effects in induction machines, and especially in traction motors. The number of nodes and the velocity of these particular force waves are experimentally validated by visualizing some operational deflection shapes of the stator. It is shown that according to the stator and rotor slot numbers, and stator natural frequencies, these forces can be responsible for high magnetic noise levels during starting and braking. A simple rule to avoid saturation magnetic noise is then proposed, and applied to an industrial motor. Simulation results show that the new proposed motor improves magnetic noise level up to 20 dB, whereas experiments give a 15 dB improvement.      

Investigation of the Variations in Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Dual-Matrix Ductile Iron by Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Analysis

The variations in the microstructure and tensile properties of dual-matrix ductile irons have been investigated non-destructively by Magnetic Barkhausen Noise (MBN) method. Specimens have been intercritically austenitised at 795°C and 815°C for 20 minutes, and then oil-quenched to obtain different martensite volume fractions. Two specimens, namely as-cast and oil-quenched from 900°C, were prepared for comparison purpose. To investigate the effect of tempering, some specimens were tempered at 500°C for 1 h and 3 h. The results showed that there is a good correlation between MBN response and variations in microstructure and mechanical properties. The volume fraction of martensite can be controlled to modify the mechanical properties, and all changes in the microstructure can be nondestructively monitored by MBN.     

淬硬轴承钢平面磨削变质层的特性

采用扫描电子显微镜(scanning electron microscopy,SEM)、维氏硬度仪和X射线衍射仪(X-ray diffraction,XRD)分别观测了不同磨削条件下淬硬轴承钢GCr15磨削表层的微观组织、显微硬度和残余应力,对淬硬轴承钢磨削变质层进行了系统的实验研究.研究发现,磨削表层由表及里依次是白层、暗层和基体组织,暗层与白层的厚度之比在1.6～3.2之间变动.白层由致密的细晶马氏体、碳化物和残余奥氏体组成,而暗层由不同的回火组织构成,白层主要是磨削热和材料的强烈塑性变形共同作用的结果.白层硬度最大值达到983 HV,比基体组织高,而暗层硬度值仅为512 HV,较基体组织低.白层表面存在大小为612.24 MPa的残余拉应力,且随着白层的增厚而增大,而暗层则呈现出残余压应力.当白层较厚时,白层内会出现微裂纹,其中以贯穿白层的中位裂纹以及白层外侧和白层/暗层过渡区的横向裂纹居多.     

Investigation of Optimum Field Amplitude for Stress Dependence of Magnetic Barkhausen Noise

An investigation of the sensitivity of magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) to changes in uniaxial tensile stress applied to mild steel under conditions of low, medium, and high excitation field amplitudes is presented. Field excitation in the lowest range that was tested produced the most sensitive response to change in stress for the squared-voltage-signal output integrated with respect to time (MBN_energy). The linear response extended to the highest applied stress of 220 MPa, which was 80% of yield strength. In this field range, the angle-dependent MBN_energy and distribution of pulse heights under applied stress conditions was observed to be consistent with previous measurements performed in the medium- to high-field amplitude ranges. However, the number of Barkhausen events was less, and increased linearly with applied stress up to 120 MPa. In contrast, at higher field amplitudes, the initial number of events was greater, but then decreased with increasing applied stress. The results at low field amplitudes are attributed to the additional 180deg domain wall activity, accompanied by increased magnetization level, which could be induced by tensile stress. The reduction in number of events at higher stresses and higher excitation field amplitudes, which corresponds to an increase in MBN_energy and broadened pulse-height distribution, is associated with increased collective Barkhausen behavior. These results demonstrate that improved sensitivity of Barkhausen signals to changes in stress can be achieved in mild steel if optimized field excitation is used.     

Effect of Ball Scribing on Magnetic Barkhausen Noise of Grain-oriented Electrical Steel

Effect of ball scribing on magnetic Barkhausen noise(MBN) of conventional grain-oriented(CGO) and highpermeability grain-oriented(HGO) electrical steel was investigated.The results showed that after ball scribing, root mean square of MBN(MBNrms) of CGO electrical steel increased 9.8%with 4 mm scribing spacing at 1.2 T,and that of HGO electrical steel apparently decreased 17.3%with 16 mm scribing spacing at 1.2 T. Through the formation and development of free magnetic poles and secondary magnetic domains due to compressive stress,primary magnetic domain space of grain-oriented electrical steel becomes smaller,which reflects as a variation of MBN in the macroscopic magnetic properties.Through correlation formula derivation of MBNrms and equilibrium distance between domain walls,effect of domain refinement on grain-oriented electrical steel was also interpreted,and optimum equilibrium distance between domain walls was determined.     

Magnetic Barkhausen Noise, Metal Magnetic Memory Testing and Estimation of the Ship Plate Welded Structure Stress

Using the Magnetic Barkhausen Noise (MBN) technique in combination with the Metal Magnetic Memory (MMM) technique, the stress in a welded steel ship plate was investigated. As part of this, the three dimensional image of the self-leakage magnetic field was obtained. In addition, MBN measurements were made in the same test area. The stress distribution, as deduced from the MBN measurements was found to correspond well with the MMM self-leakage image. As a consequence of this positive result, a new testing procedure using the combined MBN and MMM technique is proposed. First, the region with high residual stress is located rapidly using the MMM technique. Then, the actual level of residual stress is determined using the MBN technique, based on prior calibration using specimens made from the same material. This method combining with the X-ray testing method, the damage degree of the ship welded structure which suffered the navigation vibration and environment impact and so on is comprehensively estimated. This test method can not only reduce the workload of the non-destructive testing, but also improve the accuracy of the stress testing.     

Failure Analysis of Induction Hardened Automotive Axles

Rollover accidents in light trucks and cars involving an axle failure frequently raise the question of whether the axle broke causing the rollover or did the axle break as a result of the rollover. Axles in these vehicles are induction hardened medium carbon steel. Bearings ride directly on the axles. This article provides a fractography/fracture mechanic approach to making the determination of when the axle failed. Full scale tests on axle assemblies and suspensions provided data for fracture toughness in the induction hardened outer case on the axle. These tests also demonstrated that roller bearing indentions on the axle journal, cross pin indentation on the end of the axle, and axle bending can be accounted for by spring energy release following axle failure. Pre-existing cracks in the induction hardened axle are small and are often difficult to see without a microscope. The pre-existing crack morphology was intergranular fracture in the axles studied. An estimate of the force required to cause the axle fracture can be made using the measured crack size, fracture toughness determined from these tests, and linear elastic fracture mechanics. The axle can be reliably said to have failed prior to rollover if the estimated force for failure is equal to or less than forces imposed on the axle during events leading to the rollover.     

Monitoring the Microstructural Changes During Tempering of Quenched SAE 5140 steel by Magnetic Barkhausen Noise

The aim of this work is to characterize the microstructures of quenched and tempered steels non-destructively by a diverse set of parameters of the Magnetic Barkhausen Noise method (MBN fingerprint, frequency spectra, pulse height distribution, root-mean-square, and total number of pulses). Identical specimens from a SAE 5140 steel bar were prepared. All specimens were austenitized at 860°C for 30 minutes and water-quenched identically. The quenched specimens were then tempered at various temperatures between 200°C and 600°C. The microstructures were characterized by metallographic examinations and hardness measurements. Pulse height distributions, noise signal envelopes and frequency spectra were used to evaluate Barkhausen activity. The results show that as the tempering temperature increases, the Barkhausen activity increases due to the enhancement of domain wall displacement with softening of the martensite. An excellent correlation was found between Barkhausen parameters and hardness values.     

Correlation Between AC Core Loss and Surface Magnetic Barkhausen Noise in Electric Motor Steel

Core loss is a significant source of energy loss in electric motor steel laminates. Therefore, there is interest in monitoring the quality and consistency of laminates at various stages of manufacturing. The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using surface magnetic Barkhausen noise for the evaluation of AC core loss, and further, to examine potential origins of magnetic loss in non-oriented electrical steel. Core loss values were measured by a single sheet tester and Barkhausen noise measurements were performed using pole flux control on eight laminates with various grain size, texture and composition. Magnetocrystalline energy was calculated from X-ray diffraction data to quantify texture. Results demonstrated higher surface Barkhausen emissions for samples with lower core loss. Barkhausen noise analyses were used to examine the interplay among core loss, grain size, magnetocrystalline energy and B–H characteristics. The inverse correlation between core loss and Barkhausen noise emissions was qualitatively explained in terms of the orthogonal vector contribution of microscopic eddy currents to losses associated with bulk currents arising in the sample during magnetization.     

Local Non-contact Evaluation of the ac Magnetic Hysteresis Parameters of Electrical Steels by the Barkhausen Noise Technique

The potential of the magnetic Barkhausen noise method for local repeatable testing of the magnetic hysteresis properties of electrical steels was investigated. Strips of non-oriented and grain-oriented electrical steels were magnetized by a single yoke through 0–10 mm air gaps. The measurements were performed at standard ac conditions: 50 Hz sine induction waveform with different amplitudes. A vertically mounted array of three Hall sensors was used for the direct measurement of the surface magnetic field. The Barkhausen noise was detected locally by a surface-mounted pancake coil. The simultaneous measurement of the actual sample field makes it possible to stabilize a recently introduced parameter, called Barkhausen noise coercivity. This parameter demonstrates strong linear correlations to the hysteresis coercive force and to the hysteresis losses measured by the standard single sheet tester.     

Stress Response of Magnetic Barkhausen Noise in Submarine Hull Steel: A Comparative Study

The development of magnetic Barkhausen noise methods for rapid detection of residual stress concentrations has implications for integrity assessment of submarine pressure hulls. However, the stress-response of Barkhausen noise in submarine hull steel, HY-80, is complicated by the influence of the material’s martensitic microstructure. The present work sheds light on the stress-dependent behavior of Barkhausen noise in HY-80 by comparing its signal characteristics with those of more common ferrite/pearlite steels. HY-80 and various ferrite/pearlite steel plates were uni-axially stressed up to and beyond the level for plastic deformation. Barkhausen noise measurements, performed using the same sensor under reproducible flux-controlled magnetization conditions, facilitated a direct comparison of material responses. Results showed that with the application of tensile stress, the Barkhausen noise signal of ferrite/pearlite steels linearly increased, reached a peak value and saturated in the elastic region. By contrast, HY-80 demonstrated a linear increase with tensile stress characterized by a transition from a lower to a seven times higher rate of change for stresses above 200 MPa up to its yield point. The different stress-response of HY-80 was attributed to its martensitic microstructure, which modifies the response of the domain structure under tensile stress conditions.     

Quantitative Prediction of Surface Hardness in 12CrMoV Steel Plate Based on Magnetic Barkhausen Noise and Tangential Magnetic Field Measurements

Both magnetic Barkhausen noise (MBN) and tangential magnetic field (TMF) strength can be applied in the quantitative prediction of surface hardness of ferromagnetic specimens. The prediction accuracy depends on the selected model and the input parameters of the model. In this study, the relationship between the surface hardness of 12CrMoV steel plate and the measured MBN and TMF signals is investigated with multivariable linear regression (MLR) model and BP neural network technique. A comparative study between the MLR and BP model is conducted. The external validation results show that the BP model utilizing four MBN features as the input nodes has a smaller average prediction error (3.7%) than that of the MLR model (13.2%). Features extracted from the MBN and TMF signals are combined together as the input parameters of the BP model in order to achieve high accuracy. After adding two more TMF features into the input nodes of the BP network, the external validation results suggest that the average prediction error is decreased from 3.7 to 3.5%.     

Relation Between Magnetic Barkhausen Noise and Hardness for Jominy Quench Tests in SAE 4140 and 6150 Steels

The nondestructive Magnetic Barkhausen Noise (MBN) technique was applied for the evaluation of SAE 4140 and SAE 6150 steels after a Jominy end-quench test. Microstructures were also characterized by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) and hardness tests. MBN measurements were performed on the same sample regions at three excitation frequencies. Different parameters of the measured signals (signal peak position and height, and Root mean square) were calculated. A relationship between mechanical hardness and MBN parameters was found for both materials, with the best correlation coefficient being found in low excitation frequency range.