MACHINING STUDIES OF UD-FRP COMPOSITES PART 2: FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

A number of parameters and an exhaustive material development and experimental procedure to determine the response variables like cutting forces, surface damage restricts the expensive experimental research. In this context, Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis can be used as a tool for the prediction of the various machining responses. A finite element analysis of the orthogonal machining of Uni-directional Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic (UD-GFRP) laminates is presented in this study to understand the complex relation between fiber orientation, tool geometry, depth of cut on cutting forces and sub-surface damage.     

MACHINING STUDIES OF UNI-DIRECTIONAL GLASS FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC (UD-GFRP) COMPOSITES PART 1: EFFECT OF GEOMETRICAL AND PROCESS PARAMETERS

ABSTRACT

Secondary manufacturing processes such as machining is often needed to impart dimensional tolerance and assembly requirements to Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) components despite the numerous difficulties encountered. Sub-surface damages in FRP products and reduction of product life due to machining is a new challenge for the industry and academia alike. Research works are underway to design suitable cutting tools in order to minimize these problems. The present study tried to investigate the various effects of geometrical and process parameters on the machining characteristics of UD-GFRP composites. The results of the study are analyzed in terms of chip formation observation, cutting forces and sub-surface damage.     

MACHINING STUDIES OF UNI-DIRECTIONAL GLASS FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC (UD-GFRP) COMPOSITES PART 1: EFFECT OF GEOMETRICAL AND PROCESS PARAMETERS

Secondary manufacturing processes such as machining is often needed to impart dimensional tolerance and assembly requirements to Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) components despite the numerous difficulties encountered. Sub-surface damages in FRP products and reduction of product life due to machining is a new challenge for the industry and academia alike. Research works are underway to design suitable cutting tools in order to minimize these problems. The present study tried to investigate the various effects of geometrical and process parameters on the machining characteristics of UD-GFRP composites. The results of the study are analyzed in terms of chip formation observation, cutting forces and sub-surface damage.     

薄壁弧形件装夹布局有限元优化

关于航空结构件加工变形控制的研究是高效数控加工研究的一部分。薄壁弧形零件加工中的弹性变形对加工质量影响很大,而装夹布局影响切削变形的大小和分布。以减少加工中工件最大弹性变形为目标,建立了弧形件铣削加工装夹布局的优化模型,采用商业有限元软件的设计优化模块进行计算。在对计算结果进一步分析的基础上,提出了最终的装夹布局方案,采用该方案可以得到整个加工过程中更低的变形量,变形分布更均匀,为采取相应数控补偿措施提供条件。优化方案和实际加工方案结果基本一致。所提出方法可推广至其他类型工件夹具布局优化设计。     

正交切削高强耐磨铝青铜的有限元分析

采用热力耦合、平面应变、连续带状切屑的切削模型模拟了高强耐磨铝青铜的正交切削加工过程。采用增量步移动刀具的方法,结合有限元分析软件Marc的网格重划分功能,模拟了刀具从初始切入到切削力和切削温度达到稳态的切削加工过程,获得了不同切削深度和切削速度下的切屑形态、温度、应力、应变和应变速率的分布。并将模拟计算得到的切削力和切削温度与试验结果进行了比较,两者具有较好的一致性。     

复合材料层间增韧机理的有限元分析

在复合材料层间植入韧性夹层,可以有效提高层间韧性,其增韧机理在于夹层可以有效降低纤维层对裂纹尖端的约束,并降低裂纹尖端应力.文中建立层间裂纹的有限元模型,采用数值分析方法,分别计算加入夹层前后裂纹尖端的J积分值、应力强度因子以及裂纹尖端的应力场.计算结果表明,加入夹层后Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型层间裂纹尖端的J积分、应力强度因子和裂尖应力场均显著降低,并指出在夹层和相邻纤维层间界面附近出现的高应力区是造成界面失效的一个原因.     

INDUCTION-HEATED TOOL MACHINING OF ELASTOMERS—PART 1: FINITE DIFFERENCE THERMAL MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION

Experiments and finite difference thermal modeling of the induction-heated tool for end milling of elastomers are investigated. Three sets of experiments are designed to calibrate the contact thermocouple for the tool tip temperature measurement, study the effect of tool rotational speed on induction heat generation and convective heat transfer, and measure the tool temperature distribution for finite difference inverse heat transfer solution and validation of modeling results. Experimental results indicate that effects of tool rotation on induction heat generation and convective heat transfer are negligible when the spindle speed is below 2000 rpm. A finite difference thermal model of the tool and insulator is developed to predict the distribution of tool temperature. The thermal model of a stationary tool can be expanded to predict the temperature distribution of an induction-heated rotary tool within a specific spindle speed range. Experimental measurements validate that the thermal model can accurately predict tool tip peak temperature.     

UNDERSTANDING OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS RESULTS UNDER THE FRAMEWORK OF OXLEY'S MACHINING MODEL

We introduce an accurate coupled thermo-mechanical finite element analysis (FEA) of machining using the Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) analysis capability of ABAQUS/Explicit. This analysis provides detailed information about the cutting forces, chip thickness, contact length, the extent of the primary and secondary shear zones as well as the distribution of strain, strain rate and temperature in the deformation zones. This information has to be viewed under the framework of an analytical model for it to lead to better understanding of the physics of machining. We use the best available analytical model, namely, Oxley's machining model, for this purpose and the FEA results are compared with the assumptions and predictions of Oxley's analysis. The strain rate in the primary shear zone, the hydrostatic pressure variation along the shear plane, the distribution of normal and shear stresses along the tool-chip interface and the shape of the secondary shear zone are the quantities compared. Due to the key role of temperature in the prediction of tool wear, the fraction of heat conducted away into the workpiece, the maximum temperature along the tool-chip interface and the maximum temperature along the flank face are also compared. The comparison reveals that Oxley's model captures the physics of machining quite well. However, some details such as the heat partition module and the assumptions on stress and temperature distribution at the tool-chip interface need to be revisited.     

UNDERSTANDING OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS RESULTS UNDER THE FRAMEWORK OF OXLEY'S MACHINING MODEL

ABSTRACT

We introduce an accurate coupled thermo-mechanical finite element analysis (FEA) of machining using the Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) analysis capability of ABAQUS/Explicit. This analysis provides detailed information about the cutting forces, chip thickness, contact length, the extent of the primary and secondary shear zones as well as the distribution of strain, strain rate and temperature in the deformation zones. This information has to be viewed under the framework of an analytical model for it to lead to better understanding of the physics of machining. We use the best available analytical model, namely, Oxley's machining model, for this purpose and the FEA results are compared with the assumptions and predictions of Oxley's analysis. The strain rate in the primary shear zone, the hydrostatic pressure variation along the shear plane, the distribution of normal and shear stresses along the tool-chip interface and the shape of the secondary shear zone are the quantities compared. Due to the key role of temperature in the prediction of tool wear, the fraction of heat conducted away into the workpiece, the maximum temperature along the tool-chip interface and the maximum temperature along the flank face are also compared. The comparison reveals that Oxley's model captures the physics of machining quite well. However, some details such as the heat partition module and the assumptions on stress and temperature distribution at the tool-chip interface need to be revisited.     

ON THE NATURE OF MACHINING CRACKS IN GROUND CERAMICS: PART I: SRBSN STRENGTHS AND FRACTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS

ABSTRACT

Machining cracks in ground sintered reaction-bonded silicon nitride (SRBSN) rods and bars were analyzed by fractographic techniques. Grinding flaw sizes were as small as 12 µm and as large as 80 µm and correlated strongly with grinding direction and wheel grit size. Some grinding treatments had no deleterious effect on strength since the machining cracks were very small and fracture occurred from the material's inherent flaws. The telltale signs of machining damage may be detected with conventional low power optical microscopy using simple fractographic techniques. The telltale signs are summarized in a new series of schematic drawings which will aid pattern recognition for engineers and fractographers.     

ON THE NATURE OF MACHINING CRACKS IN GROUND CERAMICS: PART I: SRBSN STRENGTHS AND FRACTOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS

Machining cracks in ground sintered reaction-bonded silicon nitride (SRBSN) rods and bars were analyzed by fractographic techniques. Grinding flaw sizes were as small as 12 µm and as large as 80 µm and correlated strongly with grinding direction and wheel grit size. Some grinding treatments had no deleterious effect on strength since the machining cracks were very small and fracture occurred from the material's inherent flaws. The telltale signs of machining damage may be detected with conventional low power optical microscopy using simple fractographic techniques. The telltale signs are summarized in a new series of schematic drawings which will aid pattern recognition for engineers and fractographers.     

仿生弯曲形切削工具切削性能的二维有限元分析

自然界中的某些动物在长期的土壤环境生活过程中,其爪趾经过亿万年的进化,逐步形成了具有特定曲率的几何形状,表现出优良的减粘脱土减阻功能。这为改进切削工具几何形状,乃至优化其在切削过程中的力学性能提供了仿生研究的基础。观测了田鼠爪趾几何形态特征,分析了其轮廓线的曲率变化规律。在此基础上,引入纵深比的概念,采用二维有限元法分析了田鼠爪趾与土壤的相互作用过程,探讨了该种爪趾切削力学性能优越性的基本规律和原因,为切削部件的仿生优化设计提供了可靠的生物力学信息。     

ON THE NATURE OF MACHINING CRACKS IN GROUND CERAMICS: PART II, COMPARISON TO OTHER SILICON NITRIDES AND DAMAGE MAPS

The size and severity of grinding machining cracks in a sintered reaction bonded silicon nitride are compared to data for other silicon nitrides. Crack sizes follow a similar trend with grinding wheel grit size despite differences in microstructures, strengths, and fracture toughnesses. Silicon nitrides with enhanced fracture toughness actually develop deeper machining cracks than in less tough silicon nitrides. Machining damage maps for silicon nitride are presented.     

ANALYSIS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL MACHINING USING AN EXTENDED OBLIQUE MACHINING THEORY

This paper presents an extended oblique machining theory applicable to the analysis of 3-D machining. Existing theories are evaluated to identify suitable formulations which are used with necessary modifications for predicting various quantities pertaining to cutting conditions of three dimensional machining. Actual chip flow angles extracted from measured forces, to account for the nose radius effect, are used, instead of available models, to predict important quantities such as shear plane angle, effective rake angle and shear flow angle. Experiments are conducted in the realms of conventional and high speed machining using AISI 4140 steel and aluminum 7075-T6 respectively with uncoated carbide inserts, and various process conditions pertaining to the cutting mechanics are calculated. The extended oblique machining theory is experimentally validated in predicting temperatures at the tool-chip interface and shear plane for conventional machining. Simulation results from the finite element modeling are used for verifying the shear stress and shear plane temperature predicted by the extended oblique machining theory.     

弧面分度凸轮机构的三维有限元分析

在二维基础上用三维有限元方法对弧面分度凸轮机构进行了静力分析，全面分析了机构中各点的应力值及位移，为以后派面分度凸轮机构的设计提供重要的依据。     

ROTARY ULTRASONIC MACHINING OF TITANIUM ALLOY: EFFECTS OF MACHINING VARIABLES

Titanium and its alloys are finding prime applications in industries due to their unique properties. However, the high cost of machining is one of the limiting factors for their widespread use. Tremendous efforts are being made to improve the existing machining processes, and new processes are being developed to reduce the machining cost in order to increase the titanium market. However, there is no report on the systematic study of the effects of machining variables on output parameters in rotary ultrasonic machining of titanium and its alloys. This paper presents an experimental study on rotary ultrasonic machining of a titanium alloy. The cutting force, material removal rate, and surface roughness (when using rotary ultrasonic machining) of a titanium alloy have been investigated using different machining variables.     

APPLICATION OF OXLEY MACHINING THEORY TO BORING AND REAMING

The Oxley machining theory which allows for the high strain-rate/high temperature flow stress and thermal properties of the work materials has so far mainly being applied for predicting forces, etc. in turning. This paper describes recent work that involves extending the above theory for making machining predictions for an internal operation (boring) and intermittent process (reaming). In addition to the comparisons made between predicted and experimental (boring test) results comparisons were also made between experimental boring and turning forces. The latter results show that, under identical conditions, forces in turning are slightly higher than those in boring with the predicted and experimental results showing good agreement. For reaming, the comparison of the predicted and experimental cutting torque and thrust results also show good agreement with the correct trends being predicted when the Oxley machining theory is used with certain simplifying assumptions. The Oxley machining theory which is based on continuum mechanics and variable material flow stress can successfully be used to predict machining parameters for different material removal processes.     

APPLICATION OF OXLEY MACHINING THEORY TO BORING AND REAMING

The Oxley machining theory which allows for the high strain-rate/high temperature flow stress and thermal properties of the work materials has so far mainly being applied for predicting forces, etc. in turning. This paper describes recent work that involves extending the above theory for making machining predictions for an internal operation (boring) and intermittent process (reaming). In addition to the comparisons made between predicted and experimental (boring test) results comparisons were also made between experimental boring and turning forces. The latter results show that, under identical conditions, forces in turning are slightly higher than those in boring with the predicted and experimental results showing good agreement. For reaming, the comparison of the predicted and experimental cutting torque and thrust results also show good agreement with the correct trends being predicted when the Oxley machining theory is used with certain simplifying assumptions. The Oxley machining theory which is based on continuum mechanics and variable material flow stress can successfully be used to predict machining parameters for different material removal processes.     

INDUCTION-HEATED TOOL MACHINING OF ELASTOMERS—PART 2: CHIP MORPHOLOGY, CUTTING FORCES, AND MACHINED SURFACES

The induction-heated tool and cryogenically cooled workpiece are investigated for end milling of elastomers to generate desirable shape and surface roughness. Elastomer end milling experiments are conducted to study effects of the cutting speed, tool heating, and workpiece cooling on the chip formation, cutting forces, groove width, and surface roughness. At high cutting speed, smoke is generated and becomes an environmental hazard. At low cutting speeds, induction heated tool, if properly utilized, has demonstrated to be beneficial for the precision machining of elastomer with better surface roughness and dimensional control. Frequency analysis of cutting forces shows that the soft elastomer workpiece has low frequency vibration, which can be correlated to the surface machining marks. The width of end-milled grooves is only 68 to 78% of the tool diameter. The correlation between the machined groove width and cutting force reveals the importance of the workpiece compliance to precision machining of elastomer. This study also explores the use of both contact profilometer and non-contact confocal microscope to measure the roughness of machined elastomer surfaces. The comparison of measurement results shows the advantages and limitations of both measurement methods.     

承受轴压的X管节点极限荷载有限元分析

采用有限元法分析轴力作用下X管节点所能承受的极限荷载。在对X管节点进行数值模拟的时候,考虑焊缝对其强度的影响。在有限元分析中,采用分区网格产生法形成X管节点的有限元网格,即把整个X管节点根据计算精度的需要划分成几个不同的子区域,每个子区域的网格单独产生,整个管节点的有限元网格通过合并各个子区域的网格而形成。这种分区网格产生法可以针对不同应力梯度的区域形成不同质量和精度的网格,从而可以保证有限元结果的准确性并节省存储空间和计算时间。在分区网格法的基础上,用ABAQUS(2000)通用软件分析X管节点在承受压力作用时的荷载和位移之间的关系,并得到X管节点所能承受的极限荷载大小。此外,通过对50个X管节点模型进行分析,研究几何参数以及材料参数对X管节点极限荷载的影响。