Numerical Investigation of the Impacts of Wall Fluid Entry on Fluid Flow Characteristics and Pressure Drop along a Wellbore

Abstract

Single-point or limited-point wall fluid entry in a wellbore has been observed in different oil and gas wells all over the world through downhole video logging. The wall fluid entry is expected to affect both the fluid flow characteristics in a wellbore and the pressure drop along the wellbore. In order to investigate the impacts of the single-point wall fluid entry, a numerical simulation model has been set up and a series of numerical simulations have been conducted by using a commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package. Flow velocity profiles, streaklines, pressure distribution along the wellbore, and so on have been thoroughly investigated. The simulation results clearly demonstrate the influence of the wall fluid entry on the fluid flow as well as the pressure drop along the wellbore. The impacts on the pressure drop along the wellbore have further been quantified.     

Modeling of fluid filtration and near-wellbore damage along a horizontal well

A method was developed to simulate drilling fluid invasion of a two-phase system (water-based mud in an oil-bearing formation) and to subsequently evaluate the damage along a horizontal well. The proposed model includes fluid invasion, filter cake buildup, and relative permeability components. Filter cake and mud filtration models were developed based on a mass balance equation of cake deposition and erosion and Darcy's equation. A convection–dispersion equation was solved numerically to characterize filtrate invasion. Exposure time, permeability anisotropy, and various formation properties are considered as factors causing non-uniform fluid invasion in horizontal wells. The results of the simulation provide the distribution of fluid filtrate and indicate the maximum invasion depths and the degree of fluid invasion around the wellbore. Coupling these results with relative permeability curves allows the assessment of the distribution of effective permeabilities. The effective permeability distribution and the depth of invasion are the keys to estimating the damage caused by fluid invasion. Damage radius and skin factor predicted by the model are in agreement with published results. Overall, this method provides improvement of fluid filtrate characterization and estimation of damage along a horizontal well.     

渗透性砂岩地层漏失压力预测模型

为了预测渗透性砂岩地层的漏失压力,提高钻井的安全性。根据塑性流体的本构方程和毛细管渗流理论,分析了钻井液（宾汉流体）在井壁泥饼带、地层侵入带和原地层孔隙中的流动特性,分别建立了井壁有无泥饼2种情况下的渗漏压力计算模型。利用建立的数学模型,对崖城13-1-A15井压力衰竭储层段的漏失压力进行了预测,结果表明:井壁上未形成泥饼时,漏失压力当量密度为0.613 kg/L;井壁上形成厚度1 mm、渗透率小于4×10-5 D的泥饼时,漏失压力当量密度可提高到1.21 kg/L以上。崖城13-1-A15井钻井施工中,采用密度1.10 kg/L的抗高温Versaclean油基钻井液,没有发生井漏。建立的渗透性砂岩地层漏失压力预测模型,可为渗透性砂岩地层安全钻井提供参考。      

Sensitivity Analysis of Major Drilling Parameters on Cuttings Transport during Drilling Highly-inclined Wells

Abstract

In this study, a layered cuttings transport model is developed for high-angle and horizontal wells, which can be used for incompressible non-Newtonian fluids as well as compressible non-Newtonian fluids (i.e., foams). The effects of major drilling parameters, such as flow rate, rate of penetration, fluid density, viscosity, gas ratio, cuttings size, cuttings density, wellbore inclination and eccentricity of the drillsting on cuttings transport efficiency are analyzed. The major findings from this study are, the dominating parameter on wellbore cleaning is the flow rate, and, as the viscosity of the fluid is increased, the thickness of the cuttings bed developed in the wellbore is significantly increasing. Also, cuttings properties, fluid density, wellbore inclination and eccentricity have some influence on cuttings transport.     

非均质底水气藏水平井井筒流量及压力剖面研究

在非均质底水气藏开发过程中,水平井钻遇不同渗透率的储层是影响水平井井筒流量以及压力剖面的重要因素.以非均质底水气藏水平井渗流理论研究为基础,利用微元法将非均质储层分为若干均质储层,并在每个均质区域考虑储层与井筒耦合的变质量流动,建立了求解非均质底水气藏产量以及压力剖面的半解析模型.实例分析表明,水平井井筒流量剖面随着渗透率分布的变化出现不同幅度的波动,渗透率级差越大,流量剖面波动的范围越大,且水平井钻遇高渗透储层越多,总产量也越大;在水平井井筒跟端与趾端附近,渗透率分布对井筒压力剖面基本无影响,而在水平井井筒中间部分,高渗透储层分布越多,压降越大,反之则压降越小,但整个水平井井筒压降仅为10-4 MPa左右,因此水平气井压力测试只需将压力计下到井筒跟端处.     

Identification of lift-off mechanism failure for salt drill-in drilling fluid containing polymer filter cake through adsorption/desorption studies

Drilling fluid's contact with the productive zone of horizontal or complex wells can reduce well productivity by fluid invasion in the borehole wall. Salted drilling drill-in fluid containing polymers has often been applied in horizontal or complex petroleum wells in the poorly consolidated sandstone reservoirs of the Campos basin, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This fluid usually consists of natural polymers such as starch and xanthan gum, which are deposited as a filter cake on the wellbore wall during the drilling. Therefore, the identification of a lift-off mechanism failure, which can be detachment or blistering and pinholing, will enable formulation improvements, increasing the chances of success during filter cake removal in open hole operations. Likewise, knowledge of drill-in drilling fluid adsorption/desorption onto sand can help understand the filter cake–rock adhesion mechanism and consequently filter cake lift-off mechanism failures. The present study aimed to identify the lift-off failure mechanism for this type of fluid filter cake studying adsorption/desorption onto SiO₂ using solutions of natural polymers, lubricants, besides the fluid itself. Ellipsometry was employed to measure this process. The adsorption/desorption studies showed that the adsorbed layer of drilling fluid onto the walls of the rock pores is made up of clusters of polymers, linked by hydrogen bonds, which results in a force of lower cohesion compared to the electrostatic interaction between silica and polymers. Consequently, it was found that the most probable filter cake failure mechanism is rupture (blistering and pinholing), which results in the formation of ducts within the filter cake.     

Analysis of the Mechanical Stability of Boreholes Drilled in Sedimentary Rocks

Abstract

This article presents the method and results of wellbore stability analysis for three common reservoir lithologies consisting of a consolidated sandstone, a shaly sandstone, and a limestone formation. The effect of stress anisotropy on the mechanical stability of wellbores is evaluated while varying the inclination angle from 0 to 90°, for both the Mohr–Coulomb and the Drucker–Prager failure criteria. The selected failure criterion, and the in-situ rock stress regime are found to have significant effects on the safe drilling fluid density required to maintain wellbore integrity. According to some field examples, the Drucker–Prager failure criterion appears to systematically mimic rock conditions more realistically than the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion. The simulated consolidated sandstone formation is found more stable with lesser drilling fluid density, at any inclination angle, than the simulated shaly sandstone formation. The simulated limestone formation is even more stable than the consolidated sandstone at all inclination angles since it requires lighter fluid density to prevent wellbore collapse. For all these rock types, the higher the deviation angle (from vertical), the higher the drilling fluid density needed for maintaining wellbore integrity. For the depth and rock conditions simulated, both consolidated and shaly sands are unstable in a strike-slip stress regime, but stable in an extensional stress regime. The simulated limestone formation was found stable in both stress regimes. However, in an extensional stress regime, the limestone formation required lighter fluid density to maintain wellbore integrity than in a strike-slip stress regime. This article introduces the theory of using a practically-oriented model to assess the mechanical stability of a wellbore in a linearly-elastic stress field. The model can be used to determine the range of mechanically stable well inclinations for a given formation, and to suggest drilling-fluid density programs tailored to efficient and safe drilling.     

泥饼形成预测模型及影响因素分析

在钻井完井过程中,工作液的滤失将会造成复杂的井下情况和油气层损害。泥饼的形成对井眼安全、快速钻进及储层保护起着重要作用。在分析泥饼形成机理的基础上,文中给出了预测泥饼厚度与工作液滤失量的数学模型,利用有限差分方法对模型进行了数值求解,实现了泥饼形成过程的数值模拟;同时,利用该模型分析了井眼与储层的压差、工作液固相质量分数、泥饼渗透率和环空流速对泥饼厚度及滤失速度的影响。研究认为:随着井眼与储层的压差、工作液中固相颗粒质量分数、泥饼渗透率的增加,泥饼厚度增大;随着环空流速的增加,泥饼厚度减小;在条件相同的情况下,随泥饼厚度的增加,工作液的滤失速度减小。     

Wellbore Flow and Heat Transfer of Drilling with Foam

Abstract

On the basis of special physical properties of foam drilling fluid, a mathematical model of foam flow and heat transfer in a wellbore was established, and the solution of the model was proposed. Employing the established mathematical model and its solution, numerical calculation was conducted to analyze the effect of wellbore heat transfer on the hydraulic parameters of foam drilling. The results indicated that foam temperature in a drilling pipe was always lower than that in the annulus and formation temperature. At the bottom of the annulus, foam temperature was lower than the formation temperature, whereas in the top of the annulus, foam temperature was higher than the formation temperature. Most important, with increasing well depth, liquid injection rate, and gas injection rate, the deviation between foam temperature at the bottom of the annulus and formation temperature increased. Wellbore heat transfer not only resulted in increased foam quality in the top of the annulus, bottom pressure, and minimum gas injection rate but also a decrease in the foam quality at the bottom of the annulus and minimum cutting transport velocity. Therefore, the stability and cutting transport capacity of foam decreased. In addition, foam density and Fanning friction coefficient were affected by wellbore heat transfer. Although to a certain extent wellbore heat transfer has an effect on hydraulic parameters of foam drilling, the effect was limited and could be counteracted by increasing gas injection rate and back pressure.     

Variation of Rock and Fluid Temperature During Thermal Operation in Porous Media

Abstract

The temperature distribution in a reservoir formation is an important indicator of various reservoir conditions, such as the state of water or gas influx, type of fluid encroachment, etc. This information is necessary for better reservoir management. This study investigates the temperature propagation pattern and its dependence on various parameters during thermal recovery operations. The model equation has been solved for temperature distribution throughout the reservoir for different cases. It was found that the fluid and rock matrix temperature difference is negligible. Results show that formation fluid velocity and time have an impact on the temperature profile behavior.     

一种物理模拟冲洗液冲洗效率的评价方法

实验室自行研制开发出了“高温高压泥饼冲洗效率评价仪”,介绍了其结构、原理及使用方法,开展了一系列冲洗效率模拟实验.按10∶1的缩小比例制作了相应的缩小井筒模型,模拟砂岩地层,用PEM钻井液在高温高压环境下形成泥饼,在不同循环温度下对比评价了CW263L和CW268L冲洗液的冲洗效率,实验过程中可以自行控制泵送及冲洗时间.实验结果表明,该装置能够很好地模拟井筒的实际情况,包括钻井液所在地层的温度、压力、孔隙度环境,冲洗液对泥饼的冲洗效率,直观地表明了冲洗液性能的差异化.     

基于井筒离散模型的多元热流体吞吐机理

海上稠油油藏在多元热流体多轮次吞吐后,产量明显递减,开发效果变差。由于缺乏对多元热流体吞吐机理的认识,很难提出吞吐后开发调整的有效措施,有必要对水平井多元热流体吞吐开发机理进行研究。采用数值模拟方法,优选出井筒离散模型,通过与热水吞吐对比,剖析了多元热流体吞吐过程。结果表明,考虑多元热流体变质量流动影响以及井筒与地层耦合作用的井筒离散模型,能更真实反映稠油油藏水平井多元热流体吞吐的温度场和黏度场变化。井筒离散模型下的多元热流体吞吐模拟结果表明,沿水平井加热范围呈“长勺”状,且气液分离导致降黏范围逐渐增加。多元热流体吞吐通过热气复合降黏、扩大波及系数、气体辅助重力泄油和提高热效率,达到提高采收率的目的。     

Numerical Model of Countercurrent Spontaneous Imbibition in Underbalanced Drilling: Formation Damage Investigation

Abstract

Although mud filtrate invasion is mostly concerned in overbalanced drilling (OBD), it is shown that it also occurs during underbalanced drilling (UBD) operations. UBD is a drilling operation in which the hydrostatic head of a mud column is maintained at a pressure less than that of fluid in the porous medium. Formation damage due to mud invasion in OBD could be eliminated in UBD. However, this benefit of UBD can be missed when pressure suddenly turns to overbalance and/or spontaneous imbibition. During UBD it is difficult to maintain mud pressure less than formation pressure especially for short periods of time for operational reasons such as bit trips, and it will cause major damage due to nonexistence of internal and external mud cake. Also, spontaneous imbibition, which occurs in low-permeable reservoirs, causes drilling fluid invasion. In this case, the hydrostatic head of drilling mud is less than formation pore (oil phase) pressure, but it may be higher than water-phase pressure in the formation because of capillary pressure. This causes the flow of water into the formation, which causes formation damage. The aim of this study is to present a model for spontaneous imbibition of water into the water-wet formation during underbalanced drilling and to investigate the effect of drilling fluid, reservoir rock, reservoir fluid, and drilling operation parameters on the extension of damage in nonfractured formations. The numerical solution of governing equations and sensitivity analysis on different parameters are presented. The results show that in the case of strong capillary pressure, (1) the damage due to spontaneous imbibition is considerable and (2) the most effective criteria are temporary overbalanced and static drilling fluid situations where both increase the extend and amount of drilling filtrate invasion. Also, it was concluded that a low UBD pressure difference causes damage, whereas the very high UBD pressure difference is inefficient.     

Application of the PR-EOS with C7+ Splitting to Model Fluid Properties in a Large Two-Phase Petroleum Reservoir

Abstract

The use of equations of state (EOS) to model fluid properties is necessary in order to have an internally consistent set of PVT properties, which is essential, especially, when it is desired to use compositional simulators to model two-phase reservoirs. In this article, the 3-parameter Peng-Robinson equation of state along with single carbon number (SCN) splitting of the C₇₊ fraction are used to model a major onshore reservoir in Abu Dhabi that has horizontal and vertical fluid properties variations. Extensive screening and checking of PVT data of the field was necessary to develop this model. Also, extensive verification of the developed model was accomplished by comparing its results to data external to the model. Results of this article indicate the capability of using multiple well PVT analysis within the three-parameter Peng-Robinson EOS to model complex two-phase reservoirs such as this one. We describe the process of building up the model and the challenges involved in performing this task, which include proper selection of representative experimental data to build the model, along with extensive screening and data quality these data, and the model verification so that we have the confidence that one EOS model that can predict the reservoir fluid PVT properties.     

Heat Distribution within the Wellbore While Drilling

Abstract

Analysis of the drilling fluid temperature in a circulating well is the main objective of this study. Initially, different analytical temperature distribution models were studied. Variables that have significant effect on temperature profile are observed. Since the verification of the analytical model is not probable for many cases, a computer program that uses a finite element method is employed to simulate different well conditions. Three different wells are modeled by using rectangular elements with four nodes. Maximum drilling fluid temperature data corresponding to significant variables are collected from these models. These data are then used to develop an empirical correlation in order to determine maximum drilling fluid temperature. The proposed empirical correlation can estimate the temperature distribution within the wellbore with an average error of less than 16%, and maximum drilling fluid temperature with an average error of less than 7%.     

椭圆形井眼环空压力梯度预测与影响因素分析

井筒压力梯度的准确预测是井底压力精确控制的必要条件,其有利于减小井下复杂情况的发生。常规的压力梯度模型建立在井眼是圆形的基础上。然而,由于非均匀地应力的影响,实际井眼常常为椭圆形状,椭圆形井眼环空流动规律与圆形环空流动规律有着显著不同。基于流体力学的基本方程,笔者引入了有效水力直径,建立了椭圆形井眼环空流动的压降模型。研究表明,随着椭圆井眼尺寸比的增大,环空平均流速减小,压力梯度也随之减小;并且椭圆井眼尺寸比越大,环空环形方向高、低流速区域分级现象越加明显。另外,与CFD软件模拟结果相比,该模型的误差在±10%以内。影响因素分析表明,其他条件不变时,椭圆形井眼环空井筒压力梯度随流量、流体动切力和稠度系数的增大基本呈线性形式增大,而随流性指数的增大基本呈指数形式增大,模型能够用来计算椭圆形井眼的井筒压力。      

非渗透性低失水水泥浆保护储层的机理研究

固井水泥浆会对储层造成损害已是不争的事实。实验分析和理论研究表明：①高pH值条件下水泥浆中的大量过饱和无机物离子与地层水作用将产生大量结晶物和沉淀物（诸如Ca(OH)₂、CaCO₃、CaSO₄等），它们进入储层必然会缩小裂缝和孔喉，导致储层导流能力下降而损害储层；②钻井液动态污染后，若去掉外滤饼，再经水泥浆污染后岩心的整段渗透率恢复值只有35%～45%，此时仅靠内滤饼作用，油层保护效果不是太好，固相颗粒侵入深度将超过5.5 cm；钻井液动态污染后，若不去掉外滤饼，再经水泥浆污染后岩心的整段渗透率恢复值高达60%～70%，此时内外滤饼共同作用，油气层保护效果较好，固相颗粒侵入深度将只有2.5 cm。这说明外滤饼的存在对水泥浆的固相和液相确有很大的阻渗作用，而以降失水剂RC800为主配出的非渗透性低失水水泥浆会在近井壁地带形成一层高分子薄膜，阻止了水泥浆固相和滤液侵入储层，它相当于恢复了因要提高固井质量而人为破坏了的外滤饼的作用，从而保护了油气储层。     

应用数值模拟软件探究动滤失影响因素

利用数值模拟软件,模拟地层条件下钻井过程中的钻井液动滤失情况,研究了滤失时间、滤液黏度、压差、内泥饼渗透率、外泥饼渗透率对滤失量的影响。模拟结果表明,当地层渗透率为100 mD,外泥饼渗透率小于0.01 mD时,90%以上的压力被外泥饼消耗,外泥饼是控制滤失量的主要因素;当外泥饼渗透率大于0.1 mD时,外泥饼消耗的压力低于总压差的55%,内泥饼及原始地层的渗透率对钻井液的动滤失也有较大的影响。在模拟条件下,压力很快会传递到地层边界,随着时间的变化,地层中相同位置的地层压力逐渐增加,但增加的幅度很小,滤失速率基本为一定值。从模拟结果可以看出,滤失量与滤失时间、压差成正比,与钻井液滤液黏度成反比,同时,滤失量随着外泥饼渗透率的增加而增加,但2者不呈线性关系。      

分层射孔调剖技术在低渗透油田的应用

常规的调剖技术难以完全满足现代复杂井段、多层的调剖需要,因此展开了分层优化射孔参数调整注采剖面的研究。也就是在多层同时生产的情况下,通过调整射孔参数来调节各层的吸水量,使全井段注采剖面达到平衡,最终达到提高注水驱油采收率的目的。利用两相渗流理论及射孔损害与产能的关系,建立了分层优化射孔参数调整注采剖面的数学模型,编制了优化射孔参数的软件。利用射孔优化设计软件,针对不同地质条件和施工目的,开展不同形式的优化设计工作。并在低渗透油层进行了应用试验,使用优化的参数射孔后吸水剖面明显趋于均衡,现场应用效果良好。     

气体钻井过程中的瞬态流动分析

气体钻井过程中,调整钻井参数或者钻遇储层都会引起井内流体的瞬态流动。基于可压缩流体不稳定流动理论及地层流体渗流理论,建立了气体钻井过程中井简瞬态流动的数学模型。针对井内水动力体系的复杂特点,讨论了模型的定解条件,并对模型进行了数值求解。最后,文章对气体钻井中改变钻井参数以及钻遇储层两种情况井内气体的流动进行了计算,结果表明,增加注气量时井内压力波动不大,但钻遇储层会引起井内压力和流速的大幅度波动。