Effects of pulsed and continuous Nd–YAG laser beam waves on welding of Inconel alloy

Abstract

In the present work a 2·5 kW high power Nd–YAG laser is used in the bead on plate (BOP) and butt welding of Inconel 690 plates of thickness 3 mm. Welding is performed using a rectangular laser pulse, for which the peak to base power ratio W_r is reduced from an initial value of 10 to a value of 1, maintaining an identical mean power of 1·7 kW. Therefore, the welding mode changes from a pulsed wave to a continuous wave. The BOP results indicate that the depth of the weld penetration increases at a lower travel speed and/or a higher value of W_r. In the butt welding process, as W_r is increased from 1 to 10, the cellular microstructure of the weld remains relatively unchanged, but the macroporosity formation ratio decreases from 7·1% to 0·6%. At low values of W_r, macroporosity is identified primarily in the root region. However, as W_r increases, the associated periodic high power increases the agitation of the molten pool and probably causes bubbles to float upwards. Consequently, at higher values of W_r, the regions of macroporosity are distributed randomly throughout the weld. Although microcracks are not apparent within any of the welds, each weld exhibits slight microporosity. This microporosity decreases as W_r increases. The present results confirm that a pulsed laser beam with an appropriate peak power can be used to achieve a compromise between the mechanical properties and surface roughness of the weld for Inconel 690 in Nd–YAG laser welding.     

Weldability of 1.6 mm thick aluminium alloy 5182 sheet by single and dual beam Nd: YAG laser welding

Abstract

The weldability of 1.6 mm thick 5182 Al–Mg alloy sheet by the single- and dual-beam Nd:YAG laser welding processes has been examined. Bead-on-plate welds were made using total laser powers from 2.5 to 6 kW, dual-beam lead/lag laser beam power ratios ranging from 3:2 to 2:3 and travel speeds from 4 to 15 m min^-1. The effects of focal position and shielding gas conditions on weld quality were also investigated. Whereas full penetration laser welds could be made using the 3 kW single-beam laser welder at speeds up to 15 m min^-1, the underbead surface was always very rough with undercutting and numerous projections or spikes of solidified ejected metal. This 'spikey' underbead surface geometry was attributed to the effects of the high vapour pressure Mg in the alloy on the keyhole dynamics. The undesirable 'spikey' underbead geometry was unaffected by changes in focal position, shielding gas parameters or other single-beam welding process parameters. Most full penetration dual-beam laser welds exhibited either blow-through porosity at low welding speeds (4–6 m min^-1) or unacceptable 'spikey' underbead surface quality at increased welding speeds up to 13.5 m min^-1. Radiography revealed significant occluded porosity within borderline or partial penetration welds. This was thought to be caused by significant keyhole instability that exists under these welding conditions. A limited range of dual-beam laser process conditions was found that produced sound, pore-free laser welds with good top and underbead surface quality. Acceptable welds were produced at welding speeds of 6 to 7.5 m min^-1 using total laser powers of 4.5–5 kW, but only when the lead laser beam power was greater than or equal to the lagging beam power. The improved underbead quality was attributed to the effect of the second lagging laser beam on keyhole stability, venting of the high vapour pressure Mg from the keyhole and solidification of the underbead weld metal during full penetration dual-beam laser welding.     

Correlation between weld formation and processing parameters in CO2 laser welding of steels

Abstract

Laser welding, which has undergone rapid development in the past few decades, is one of the most important applications in laser materials processing. Although some general data are available, precise welding parameters are equipment specific. In the present study, a series of autogenous laser welds on mild and stainless steels has been investigated, using a Trumpf 3·0 kW CO² laser system, to establish welding parameter windows. The correlation between laser power, welding speed, and weld bead profile for bead on plate welding has been obtained. For a constant laser power, penetration depth reaches a stable value as welding speed exceeds 11 000–13 000 mm min^-1. This value is defined as the penetration threshold. Lower welding speed produces deeper penetration. However, under such conditions, the unstable keyhole and weld pool could result in undercut and porosity. The maximum penetration achievable for sound welds on both mild steel and stainless steel was investigated. The correlation between penetration threshold and power level was also established. The parameter windows established for autogenous welds can be adopted effectively on butt jointsif welding speed is reduced by 25%.     

铝合金中厚板高功率激光搅拌焊气孔缺陷工艺调控

高功率激光焊接为铝合金中厚板高质高效焊接提供了有效手段,然而面临焊缝气孔多发的问题. 文中开展了铝合金中厚板高功率激光搅拌焊接气孔缺陷的工艺调控研究,阐明了搅拌振幅和搅拌频率对接头气孔率的影响,并提出了工艺参数优化方法. 结果表明,搅拌振幅主要影响光束运动轨迹横向分布和小孔开口面积;搅拌频率主要影响激光光束运动速度和对后方熔池的搅拌次数;搅拌振幅和频率越大,气孔抑制效果越明显,但焊缝熔深难以满足应用要求;通过控制光束运动轨迹和能量密度,可以实现工艺参数的设计,获得大熔深、少气孔的最佳工艺区间,最终得到熔深高达6.4 mm的少气孔焊接接头.     

High quality welding of stainless steel with 10 kW high power fibre laser

Abstract

The objectives of this research are to investigate penetration characteristics, to clarify welding phenomena and to develop high quality welding procedures in bead on plate welding of type 304 austenitic stainless steel plates with a 10 kW fibre laser beam. The penetration depth reached 18 mm at the maximum at 5 mm s^?1. At 50 mm s^?1 or lower welding speeds, however, porosity was generated at any fibre laser spot diameter. On the other hand, at 100 mm s^?1 or higher welding speeds, underfilling and humping weld beads were formed under the conventionally and tightly focused conditions respectively. The generation of spatters was influenced mainly by a strong shear force of a laser induced plume and was greatly reduced by controlling direction of the plume blowing out of a keyhole inlet. The humping formation was dependent upon several dynamic or static factors, such as melt volume above the surface, strong melt flow to the rear molten pool on the top surface, solidification rate and narrow molten pool width and corresponding high surface tension. Its suppression was effective by producing a wider weld bead width under the defocused laser beam conditions or reduction of melt volume out of keyhole inlet under the full penetration welding conditions. Concerning porosity, X-ray transmission in situ observation images demonstrated that pores were formed not only from the tip of the keyhole but also at the middle part because of high power density. The keyhole behaviour was stabilised using a nitrogen shielding gas, resulting in porosity prevention. Consequently, to produce high quality welds in 10 kW high power fibre laser welding, the reduction procedures of welding defects were required on the basis of understanding their formation mechanism, and 10 kW fibre laser power could produce sound deeply penetrated welds of 18 mm depth in a nitrogen shielding gas.     

Laser beam welding of dissimilar stainless steels in a fillet joint configuration

This paper investigates laser beam welding of dissimilar AISI 304L and AISI 430 stainless steels. Experimental studies were focused on effects of laser power, welding speed, defocus distance, beam incident angle, and line energy on weld bead geometry and shearing force. Metallurgical analysis was conducted on a selected weld only to show various microstructures typically formed at different zones and consequent change in microhardness. Laser power and welding speed were the most significant factors affecting weld geometry and shearing force. All the bead characteristics but radial penetration depth decreased with increased beam incident angle. The focused beam allowed selecting lower laser power and faster welding speed to obtain the same weld geometry. Weld shape factor increased rapidly due to keyhole formation for line energy input ranging from 15 kJ/m to 17 kJ/m. Fusion zone microstructures contained a variety of complex austenite-ferrite structures. Local microhardness of fusion zone was greater than that of both base metals.     

铝合金激光-多股绞合焊丝MIG复合焊特性分析

选用多股绞合焊丝替代传统焊丝,将激光热源与多股绞合焊丝MIG焊热源相匹配.借助高速摄像系统,提取焊接过程中熔池和匙孔特征量,开展5A06铝合金激光-多股绞合焊丝MIG复合焊工艺特性研究,探讨了不同工艺参数下焊缝成形与熔池行为相关性及焊接气孔规律性研究.结果表明,主要焊接工艺参数对焊缝成形的影响规律与常规焊丝激光-电弧复...     

10kW光纤激光焊接缺陷的形成

研究了未熔透光纤激光焊接过程中工艺参数对小孔型气孔、热裂纹和飞溅的影响,并讨论焊接缺陷形成机理. 结果表明,随着光纤激光焊接速度的增加,焊缝气孔和热裂纹倾向降低. 当焦点位置在工件表面时,气孔倾向最大;而当焦点位置由入焦向离焦偏移时,热裂纹敏感性增加. 光纤激光焊接气孔是由小孔不稳定引起的,而小孔不稳定性同时引起了熔池后部凝固前沿形状的变化,提高了焊缝热裂纹的敏感性. 较慢速光纤激光焊接飞溅的形成主要在于小孔开口处前沿熔池的凸起,其程度可能与小孔的稳定性有关.     

Effects of magnesium content on dual beam Nd : YAG laser welding of Al – Mg alloys

Abstract

The effects of Mg content on the weldability of aluminium alloy sheet using the dual-beam Nd:YAG laser welding process have been studied by making bead-on-plate welds on 1.6 mm thick AA 1100, AA 5754 (3.2 wt-%Mg) and AA 5182 (4.6 wt-%Mg) alloy sheets. Whereas all full-penetration laser welds made in 1100 aluminium were of excellent quality,many of the welds produced in the aluminium–magnesium alloys exhibited rough, spiky underbead surfaces with drop-through and undercut. A limited range of process variables was found, however, that allowed welds with acceptable weld bead quality to be produced in the 5754 and the 5182 alloy sheet. Goodwelds were only produced in these alloys if the lead/lag laser beam power ratio was ≥1. Weld penetration and the maximum welding speed allowing full penetration keyhole-mode welding were observed to increase with Mg content. This was attributed to the effect of Mg on the vapour pressure within the keyhole and the surface tension of the Al–Mg alloys. Significant occluded vapour porosity was seen in the 5754 and 5182 alloy welds with borderline penetration; however, there was no evidence of porosity in the acceptable full-penetration welds with smooth underbead surfaces. Hardness profiles in the 5754 and 5182 welds showed a gradual increase in hardness from the base metal values through the heat affected zone (HAZ) to a peak in hardness in the weld metal adjacent the fusion boundary. It is possible that this increase in hardness may be the result of the presence of Mg₂Al₃ or metastable Mg₂Al₃′ precipitates in this region of the weld and HAZ.     

焊接参数对铝合金激光——MIG电弧复合焊缝熔深的影响

以5A06(LF6)铝合金为研究对象,研究了铝合金激光-MIG电弧复合焊(HYBRID焊)时焊接参数的变化对焊缝熔深的影响规律,并将焊接参数的变化对激光-MIG电弧复合焊、MIG电弧焊、激光焊的焊缝熔深的影响进行了综合比较分析.结果表明,若以等效于激光焊熔深的MIG电弧功率为分界线,可以把MIG电弧的功率分成高、低能量两个区,当激光与低能量电弧区的电弧复合时,激光对焊缝的熔深起主导作用,HYBRID焊的熔深大于该区的MIG电弧焊;当激光与高能量电弧区的电弧复合时,电弧对焊缝的熔深起主导作用,HYBRID焊缝主要体现为MIG焊缝的特点,加入激光的优势主要体现在增加焊接速度方面,即高速焊时也可获得良好的焊缝成形.     

侧吹气流方向对大功率CO2激光焊缝成形的影响

激光深熔焊过程中会在熔池上方产生等离子体云，若该等离子体云过密，将降低激光入射到工件表面能量密度。在工业应用中，常采用侧吹辅助气体来减弱等离子体云的影响。本文通过试验，研究了在不同气体流量下，侧吹气体方向不同对焊接过程稳定性和焊缝成形的影响。结果发现：使用大功率CO2激光焊接AH32时。侧吹气体方向对焊缝成形有着明显的影响。从熔池和等离子体两个方面，解释了侧吹气体方向的影响机制。     

H13模具钢低功率活性激光焊

传统焊接修复失效模具耗时长,热输入分散,容易引起热影响区性能恶化;激光焊修复失效模具自动化程度高、工时短、热输入量集中,但高功率激光修复模具性价比较低。将活性焊接技术应用于模具修复,在低功率下可获得较高的熔深,有效的降低成本。以H13热模具钢为试验对象,研究了低功率下活性剂对激光焊缝宏观表面形貌、熔深熔宽以及微观组织形貌的影响。试验结果表明,涂覆活性剂后,焊缝表面成型更好,焊缝颜色光亮,鱼鳞纹清晰可见;焊缝熔宽在涂敷活性剂后会略有增加,而熔深则增加明显,增深接近一倍。活性剂不管涂敷与否,焊缝均没有裂纹、气孔、夹杂等缺陷,但是涂覆活性剂后导致了焊缝晶粒略微粗化。     

铝锂合金YAG-MIG复合焊焊缝成形特征

基于铝锂合金激光电弧复合焊焊缝成形特征的分析,对5A90铝锂合金YAG-MIG复合焊接工艺展开研究.固定选取合理的焊接位置条件下,讨论了激光功率、焊接速度、焊接电流和热源作用间距等主要焊接工艺参数对焊缝成形的影响规律.结果表明,两热源间距在0～6mm之间时有较好的复合效应;激光功率的增加对增大焊缝熔深和背面熔宽起主导作用;焊缝正、背面熔宽随着焊接速度的提高均明显减小,熔深亦有减小趋势;焊接电流加大时,焊缝熔深和熔宽显著增大.     

铝合金脉冲YAG激光焊脉冲调制参数对焊缝形状参数的影响

以2mm厚LF3铝合金薄板为对象,研究了在平均功率和焊接速度不变时脉冲YAG激光焊脉冲调制参数(脉宽、频率及单脉冲能量)对热导焊缝形状参数(熔深、熔宽及深宽比)的影响规律,并结合脉冲激光焊间断作用的特征,引入"有效峰值功率密度"综合考虑焊接速度、频率、脉宽以及光斑大小对焊缝形状参数的影响.此外,还对脉冲激光焊所形成的特殊的层状焊缝形貌进行研究和分析.结果表明,焊缝形状参数受脉宽及峰值功率密度双重作用的影响.脉冲焊得到的焊缝呈现多层状形貌,层数随频率升高而增多.     

Nd:YAG laser micro-welding of ultra-thin FeCo–V magnetic alloy: optimization of weld strength

The main aim of this research is to optimize the tensile strength of laser welded FeCo–V alloy. A mathematical relationship was developed to predict tensile strength of the laser beam welded FeCo–V foils by incorporating process parameters such as lamping current, welding speed, pulse duration and focused position. The procedure was established to improve the weld strength and increase the productivity. The results indicate that the pulse duration and welding speed have the greatest influence on tensile strength. The obtained results showed that the tensile strength of the weld joints increase as a function of increasing pulse duration reaching to a maximum at a pulse duration value of 2.25 ms. Moreover, the tensile strength of joints increases with decrease in welding speed reaching to a maximum at a welding speed of 125 mm/min. It has been shown that increase in pulse duration and decrease in welding speed result in increased effective peak power density and hence formation of more resistant welds. At higher pulse durations and lower welding speeds, the tensile strength of weld joints decreases because of formation of solidification microcracks in the fusion zone.     

热输入对6A02铝合金光纤激光焊缝成形的影响

采用大功率密度的光纤激光对1.0 mm厚的6A02铝合金进行了激光焊接,着重研究了焊接热输入对焊缝宏观形貌、组织和性能的影响. 结果表明,采用高速焊接且热输入控制在8～22 J/mm范围内可以获得稳定全熔透焊缝. 典型的光纤激光焊缝横截面常呈近X形,此种形貌的焊接温度场不均匀性较小,有利于减少焊接失稳和变形. 从熔合线至焊缝中心,显微组织逐渐从柱状晶组织向混合组织(柱状晶+等轴晶)转变. 随焊接热输入的降低,焊缝区的显微组织相对细化,接头熔合线附近的软化现象逐渐减弱,焊缝区显微硬度和接头抗拉强度均略有增加.     

Fibre laser welding of aluminium alloy

The objectives of this research are to investigate the effects of various welding conditions on penetration and defect formation, to clarify their welding phenomena and to develop the procedure of reduction of the defect. Fibre laser bead-on-plate welding was performed on several aluminium alloys, in particular A5083, at the power of 6 or 10 kW and several power densities from 0.4 kW/mm². It was found that the weld beads were narrower and deeper with an increase in the laser power density. For example, fully penetrated weld beads in 10 mm thick plates were produced at the laser power density of 640 kW/mm² and the welding speed of 10 m/min. However, convex–concave bead surfaces were formed. Moreover, in the case of the high power density, no porosity and many pores were present at high and low welding speeds, respectively. On the other hand, in the case of the ultra-high power density, few pores were generated in high speed welding. These reasons were interpreted by observing keyhole behaviour, bubble formation and the molten pool geometry during high power fibre laser welding with a high-speed video camera and microfocused X-ray transmission in situ observation method. Moreover, the porosity in the weld bead was reduced and prevented by the utilization of nitrogen gas instead of Ar gas, or the forward inclination angle of 40° (50° from the right angle) in Ar shielding gas.     

铝合金光纤激光高速压力焊接

铝合金对近红外光纤激光反射率高,激光能量利用率低,目前通常采用"万瓦级"光纤激光实现铝合金的高速激光焊接.文中采用激光压力焊接的方法,实现了铝合金"千瓦级"光纤激光的高速焊接.研究了不同工艺参数下焊缝的成形性,计算了激光能量的汇聚规律,并利用电子背散射衍射技术(EBSD)对焊缝微观结构进行表征.结果表明,激光功率为1～...     

The effect of residual stresses in weld reinforcement on the propagation of fatigue cracks

Summary

A series of systematic studies was undertaken to clarify the effect of CO₂ laser welding conditions on melting characteristics, porosity formation, cracking susceptibility, hardness profiles, macro- and micro-distribution of Mg, and tensile properties of aluminium alloys. Bead-on-plate welding was performed on different commercially available alloys such as A5052, 5083, 5182, 6061 and 7N01 with a CO₂ laser under various conditions of laser power, welding speed and defocused distance. In this paper, the influence of various welding conditions on melting characteristics was investigated from a fundamental viewpoint. In particular, laser beam modes and pressure distribution under various gas flow rates were measured, and it was consequently demonstrated that melting behaviour was greatly affected by the laser mode in the welding direction and the gas flow rate or pressure. Also the effect of Ar/He gas ratio on melting was investigated, and it was revealed that the use of Ar was beneficial to weld more highly-conductive and reflective alloys at lower power and higher welding speed, while a higher content of He was good for higher power and lower welding speed. Furthermore, it was confirmed that a larger amount of Mg was evaporated even under conditions producing a shallow weld molten pool leading to more deeply penetrated welds.     

大厚度船用高强钢激光-电弧复合焊技术研究

为实现大厚度高强钢全熔透单道对接焊,针对厚度20mm的AH32船用高强钢,采用15kW大功率CO_2激光进行激光-电弧复合焊接.分析了工件坡口、焊接速度、送丝速度、离焦量、装配间隙等规范参数对焊缝成型影响;通过金相观察以及显微硬度测定分析了接头组织性能.结果表明:通过激光功率等焊接规范匹配,激光-电弧复合焊接能实现20mm厚板的全熔透单道对接;钝边为8mm的Y形坡口有助于提高厚板激光-电弧复合焊缝熔透能力;降低焊接速度有利于提高熔深能力;工件厚度较大时,装配间隙对焊缝熔深能力的影响较为显著;接头硬度表明厚板激光复合焊焊缝纵向热循环模式存在较大差异.