Effects of Varying Levels of Chloride Salts on Clostridium Botulinum Toxin Production in Turkey Frankfurters

Inhibitory effects of sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl), and magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) on C. botulinum inoculated turkey frankfurter emulsions were determined. Ionic strengths (I.S.) of 0.42, 0.55, and 0.68 were compared (equivalent to 2.5%, 3.25%, and 4.0% NaCl). Sodium nitrite levels were constant at 150 ppm. Inoculated emulsions (10³ spores/g) were incubated and maintained at 27°C. In-creasing NaCl from I.S. 0.42 to 0.68 delayed toxin production from 4 days to at least 40 days. KCl was almost as effective as NaCl at I.S. 0.42, but inferior at higher levels. MgCl₂ did not demonstrate any inhibitory effect. Fifty percent substitution of 2.5% NaCl with KCl or MgCl₂ generally reduced time for toxin production to occur.     

Effects of Chloride Salts on Physical, Chemical and Sensory Properties of Frankfurters

Triplicate 4.5 kg batches of frankfurters formulated with either pork/beef or mechanically deboned turkey (MDT) were made to replace all (100%) or part (35%) of the sodium chloride (NaCl) with either potassium chloride (KCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) or lithium chloride (LiCl). Regardless of storage period or formulation, replacing all of the NaCl with either KCl or MgCl₂ was detrimental to flavor. This same replacement with LiCl was not detrimental to flavor in pork/beef formulations. Data suggest that MgCl₂ would not be a satisfactory substitute for NaCl in these formulations; however, replacing 35% of the NaCl with KCl may be possible. Because of its toxicity, LiCl is not GRAS-approved and we do not recommend its use but, its use in this study more closely approximated the sensory properties of NaCl than either KCl or MgCl₂.     

Effects of Reduced Sodium Chloride and Added Phosphates on Physical and Sensory Properties of Turkey Frankfurters

Turkey frankfurters containing 20 and 40% salt (NaCl) reductions were manufactured and evaluated in comparison to a standard formulation containing 2.5% sodium chloride. Additionally, either 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), sodium hexametaphosphate (HMP), or sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) were incorporated into frankfurters containing similar salt reductions. Phosphates improved emulsion stability and yields, especially in formulas with 40% salt reductions. TPP increased frankfurter firmness compared to that provided by SAPP or HMP regardless of salt level, but TPP had a deleterious effect on freshness at the 2.0% salt level. SAPP was more effective than HMP in improving plumpness and enhancing salt flavor intensity. Overall, SAPP appeared to provide greater benefits than either HMP or TPP as a single polyphosphate for reduced salt turkey frankfurters.     

Effects of Sodium Chloride Reduction and Polyphosphate Addition on Clostridium Botulinum Toxin Production in Turkey Frankfurters

Mechanically deboned turkey meat emulsions were made with 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, or 3.0% salt (NaCl), or with combinations of 1.5% or 2.0% salt with 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), sodium hexametaphosphate (HMP), or sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP). Sodium nitrite levels were constant at 150 ppm. Emulsions were inoculated with a mixture of 10 strains of C. botulinum (10³/g) and incubated at 27°C. Increasing NaCl content from 1.0% to 3.0% delayed toxin production by 3 days on the average. Toxin production was detected earlier when TPP was added, HMP had no effect, and SAPP delayed toxin production.     

Effect of Addition of Chloride Salts on Rancidity of Ground Pork Inoculated with a Moraxella or a Lactobacillus Species

Two experiments were conducted to determine rancidity development in raw-refrigerated ground pork treated with different types and levels of chloride salts. In the first experiment, raw ground pork was inoculated with either a Moraxella or a Lactobacillus species. In the second experiment, samples were not inoculated. In both experiments, samples were treated with either NaCl, KCl, or MgCl₂ at ionic strength of either 0.73 or 0.37 and stored at 5°C. Regardless of inoculation, in both experiments addition of any chloride salt increased (P < 0.05) TBA values over those values for controls (no added salt). Addition of NaCl resulted in the highest (P < 0.05) TBA values among inoculated samples, but these differences were not apparent for noninoculated samples.     

Rates of Heating and lnstron Measurements for Turkey Batters with Sodium Salts of Nitrite, Chloride and Phosphate

Electrical resistance heating at two voltage levels was used to heat muscle batters containing a variety of sodium salts. Peak heights or depths from Instron curves indicated resistance of heated muscle batters to expansion or contraction. Batters heated at the higher voltage had increased peak heights, higher temperatures at which the batters reached that peak and decreased peak depths. Batters with sodium nitrite became less fluid in the initial stages of heating and expanded more with heating than those with water only. Sodium chloride increased peak heights and increased the temperatures at which the batters reached those peaks. Batters with sodium chloride and sodium tripolyphosphate were the least fluid during heating and began to expand at the lowest temperatures.     

Protein Extraction from Frozen, Thawed Turkey Muscle with Sodium Nitrite, Sodium Chloride, and Selected Sodium Phosphate Salts

Turkey muscle batters were prepared with the sodium salts of nitrite, chloride and selected phosphate salts. Amounts of extracted protein were measured by the biuret method and separated by SDS-gel elctrophoresis and high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). For breast muscle, three proteins in the nitrite extracts had higher molecular weights than those in water extracts as determined by SDS-gel electrophoresis. Sodium chloride and sodium tripolyphosphate increased centrifuged batter sediment weight, increased the concentration of extracted protein, increased the number of electrophoretically separated higher molecular weight protein bands and increased HPLC peak areas of extracts from muscle batters.     

Texture and Sensory Evaluations of Frankfurters Made with Different Formulations and Processes

Objective tests for frankfurter textural properties were investigated by varying formulations and processing parameters and then correlating nine sensory textural attributes with eleven instrumental methods. The most discriminative instrumental parameters were compressive force at failure, compressive force at 50% deformation without failure, and maximum shear force. High correlations (r > 0.80) were found between compressive forces or shear force and sensory elasticity, firmness, and chewiness; stress relaxation and elasticity; total expressible fluid and juiciness; and expressible moisture and wateriness. Elastic recovery did not correlate with any sensory characteristic.     

Relative Viscosity of Proteins Extracted from Frozen, Thawed Turkey Muscle with the Sodium Salts of Nitrite, Chloride, and Tripolyphosphate

Turkey breast muscle batters were prepared with sodium chloride, sodium nitrite, and sodium tripolyphosphate. Batter pH and centrifuged batter sediment weight were measured, extracted protein amounts were measured by the biuret method, and relative viscosity of the extract was determined by capillary tube viscometry. Water and nitrite extracts had similar pH values, protein concentrations and relative viscosities. The batter with sodium chloride had the lowest pH while the batter with sodium tripolyphosphate had the highest pH. The greatest centrifuged batter sediment weight, greatest protein concentration and most viscous extract were from the batter containing sodium chloride and sodium tripolyphosphate.     

Rheological and Gelation Properties of Meat Batters Prepared with Three Chloride Salts

The gelation and rheological properties of poultry meat emulsions prepared with three chloride salts (NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂) and 50/50 mixtures of the above salts at isoionic strength (IS = 0.42) were studied. The relationship between shear rate and shear stress for the different raw meat emulsions was found to be nonlinear and followed Bingham pseudoplastic behavior. The yield stress for the emulsion containing only MgCl₂ was significantly lower as compared to all the other treatments. The highest rigidity modulus values obtained during cooking were observed in the NaCl + MgCl₂ treatment followed by the NaCl + KCl, NaCl and KCl. The emulsion containing MgCl₂ only broke down at the initial stages of cooking, exhibiting the destabilizing effect of the magnesium cation.     

Effect of Sodium Chloride Levels in Frankfurters on the Growth of Clostridium sporogenes and Staphylococcus aureus

Frankfurters were made with 100%, 80%, and 60% of the normal 2.5% added NaCl, plus 150 ppm NaNO₂ and 430 ppm ascorbate. They were either untreated or inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus or Clostridium sporogenes and incubated at a moderate abuse temperature of 11°C for up to 11 days. A slightly more rapid growth of the natural flora was noted in the frankfurters containing 60% of the normal salt compared to those containing higher levels of salt. No outgrowth of clostridial spores occurred in any inoculated sample. Staphylococcal growth was slow and inconsistent, with no effect related to salt levels. Incubating frankfurters at higher tern. peratures showed that abuse temperature had a greater effect on total aerobic and staphylococcal growth than did the salt levels tested.     

Influence of Anion and Cation on the Water-Holding Capacity of Bovine Hide Collagen at Different pH Values. Effect of Sodium Chloride and Polyphosphates on Hydration

The hydration capacity of freeze-dried, food-grade fibrous collagen from bovine hide was studied at the pH range of 3–10 in the presence of different concentrations of sodium chloride and various phosphate salts. The effect of cooking on the water-holding capacity (WHC) was also investigated under these conditions. Concentrations of NaCl up to 4% and/or 0.5% of the various phosphate salts (in the aqueous phase) did not improve the WHC of collagen in the pH range 5–7 as compared to the WHC in the absence of these salts. Although 6% NaCl showed some lyotrophic effect on the WHC of unheated collagen between pH 5–8, the effect did not persist on heating. The WHC of collagen increased almost twofold on heating to 70°C (in the pH range 5–7) as compared to that of unheated collagen both in the absence or presence of added salts.     

Effects of Mechanically Separated Beef with Various Chloride Salts in Restructured Beef Steaks

The effects of various chloride salts (NaCl, MgCl₂, KCl or 65% NaCl + 35% KCl) in combination with mechanically separated beef (MSB at 0, 10 or 20%) on the quality of restructured steaks formulated from bullock chucks were determined. As level of MSB increased, objectionable connective tissue, flavor desirability and overall palatability decreased and off-flavors increased. The development of oxidative rancidity during frozen storage was not affected by MSB level and MSB had little effect on textural traits. NaCl and NaCl + KCl treated steaks received superior flavor and overall palatability ratings over steaks containing MgCl₂ or KCl. Oxidative rancidity developed faster in steaks containing NaCl than the other salt types. Partial replacement (35%) of NaCl with KCl resulted in restructured steaks with sensory properties equal to and storage life superior to steaks with NaCl alone.     

Low-Fat Bologna and Beaker Sausage: Effects of Carrageenans and Chloride Salts

Two meat products, regular bologna and bologna-like beaker sausage, were used to test performance of low-fat bologna batters prepared with two chloride salts (NaCl or KCl) and two carrageenan types (kappa or lambda). In the beaker sausage, two carrageenan-salt combinations lowered cooking loss compared to controls, and lambda-carrageenan in the presence of potassium cations was most effective. In regular bologna, none of the carrageenan-salt combinations lowered the cooking loss usually resulting with large amounts of added water. Also, treatments with lambda-carrageenan were less firm than high-fat or low-fat controls.     

Protein Extractability of Turkey Breast and Thigh Muscle with Varying Sodium Chloride Solutions as Affected by Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc Chloride

Ground turkey breast and thigh muscle were extracted with various NaCl solutions with or without added CaCl₂, MgCl₂, or ZnCl₂ (0.05%). Protein solubility was increased by CaCl₂ and decreased by ZnCl₂ in each muscle type. At 4% NaCl, MgCl₂ increased thigh myosin solubility by 30%, compared to the control, whereas CaCl₂ had no effect. At 2% and 4% NaCl, breast myosin was not affected by MgCl₂ or CaCl₂. Myosin was not detected for either muscle type when ZnCl₂ was used. All three salts increased breast actin solubility but only MgCl₂ increased thigh actin solubility. The CaCl₂ resulted in the highest overall protein solubility and MgCl₂ resulted in the highest thigh myosin and actin solubility at 4% NaCl.     

Effect of Salts of Organic Acids on Listeria monocytogenes,Shelf Life,Meat Quality,and Consumer Acceptability of Beef Frankfurters

The objective of this study was to evaluate anti‐listerial efficacy of salts of organic acids, and their impact on the quality of frankfurters. Beef frankfurters were manufactured by incorporating organic acids in 5 different combinations: (1) control (no marinade addition; C); (2) sodium lactate (2% wt/wt; SL); (3) potassium lactate (2% wt/wt; PL); (4) sodium citrate (0.75% wt/wt; SC); and (5) sodium lactate (2% wt/wt)/sodium diacetate (0.25% wt/wt; SL/SD). Cooked frankfurters were inoculated with streptomycin‐resistant (1500 μg/mL) L. monocytogenes (7 log₁₀ CFU/frank). Inoculated and noninoculated frankfurters were vacuum packaged and stored at 4 °C. Samples were taken weekly up to 10 wk for estimation of L. monocytogenes as well as aerobic plate count (APC) and psychrotrophs (PSY), respectively. Total of 2 independent trials of the entire experiment were conducted. Noninoculated beef frankfurters were evaluated weekly by untrained sensory panelists for 7 wk. SL, PL, and SC treatments did not (P > 0.05) adversely affect consumer acceptability through 8 wk although, SL/SD treatment was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) less preferred across all sensory attributes. SL/SD treatment negatively affected product quality, but was able to control APC, PSY, and L. monocytogenes levels. SC performed similar to the control throughout the 8, 9, and 10 wk storage periods, providing no benefit for inhibiting L. monocytogenes (increasing from 7 logs CFU/frank to 10 logs CFU/frank throughout storage) or extending shelf life of the beef frankfurters. In conclusion, 2% SL and PL, and 2% SL/0.25% SD may be effective L. monocytogenes inhibitors (maintaining inoculation levels of 7 logs CFU/frank during storage), but changes in SL/SD treatment formulation should be studied to improve product quality.     

Low-fat Frankfurters with Elevated Levels of Water and Oleic Acid

The effects of simultaneous incorporation of maximum allowable levels of water and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) on frankfurter properties were investigated. The formulation changes generally had little effect on processing yield. Frankfurters formulated with HOSO were 180-241% higher in the ratio of total monounsaturated fatty acids to total saturated fatty acids when compared to control products with similar total fat levels. Consumer-panel sensory data and instrumental texture profile data indicated that low-fat (14-16%), high-water, HOSO frankfurters- were as acceptable as control frankfurters with 28% fat (all-animal fat) and did not have the texture problems observed previously with low-fat, HOSO frankfurters without extra added water.     

Effect of Chloride Salts and Antioxidants on Sensory and Storage Traits of Restructured Beef Steaks

The effects of antioxidants (0.01 or 0.02% of total fat), salt level (0.375 or 0.750%) and salt type (NaCl, KCl or a 65% NaCl + 35% KCl combination) in a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial arrangement on the quality of restructured beef steaks were determined. Meat blends with 0.02% antioxidant had lower thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values than those with 0.01% after 85 to 155 days of frozen storage. Steaks with no salt (pooled across antioxidant levels) had lower TBA values than steaks with any salt type after 85 days storage or either level of salt after 155 days storage. Steaks with either level of added salt resulted in higher ratings for juiciness, saltiness and overall palatability than steaks with no added salt. Juiciness, flavor desirability, saltiness and overall palatability ratings generally were higher for restructured steaks made with NaCl or NaCl + KCl compared to those made with KCl. KCl at 35% of total salt could serve as a NaCl substitute in restructured beef steaks.