Developmental psychopathology and the reciprocal patterning of behavior and environment: Distinctive situational and behavioral signatures of internalizing, externalizing, and mixed-syndrome children.

In contrast to assessment approaches that conceptualize traits as generalized response tendencies, this research develops a conditional approach that conceptualizes traits as patterns of relations between contexts and behaviors. Using extensive observations of social interactions, this study investigated internalizing, externalizing, and mixed-syndrome children identified by T. M. Achenbach's (1993) measures. Children in these groups differed in the patterning of their responses to social contexts and in the likelihood of encountering them. Mixed-syndrome children showed a distinctive behavior pattern consisting of aggressive and withdrawn responses to nonaversive contexts. The results demonstrate how measures of overall tendencies confound person and environment influences and obscure differences between children that are revealed by contextualized measures. The need to incorporate contexts more fully into clinical assessment is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental precursors of externalizing behavior: Ages 1 to 3.

Despite previous research indicating that early negative child behavior and the quality of the parent–child relationship are predictive of later externalizing problems, few investigators have attempted to trace these antecedents back to infancy. In a sample of 100 infants (59 boys and 41 girls) from low-income families, it was possible to identify developmental sequences leading from infant persistence and lack of maternal responsiveness to later child disruptive, aggressive child behavior at ages 2 and 3 yrs. Gender differences were found with respect to the range and type of variables that showed continuity in predicting disruptive behavior. For boys, salient predictors of age 2 and age 3 externalizing behavior were maternal unresponsiveness, infant attention-seeking, aggression, and noncompliance, whereas for girls, infant noncompliance was related to both age 3 externalizing and internalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Latent curve modeling of internalizing behaviors and interpersonal skills through elementary school.

The trajectories of internalizing and interpersonal behaviors from kindergarten through fifth grade were studied using univariate and bivariate latent curve models. Internalizing behaviors demonstrated a small, yet statistically significant, linear increase over time, while interpersonal behaviors showed a small, yet statistically significant, linear decrease. There were individual differences in trajectories, and predictor variables accounted for some of this variation. In kindergarten, girls had more interpersonal behaviors than did boys. Children from higher SES families or with higher initial levels of externalizing behaviors had more internalizing behaviors and fewer interpersonal skills. One key finding from this study was that interpersonal and internalizing trajectories demonstrated a strong association. Increasing internalizing slopes were associated with decreasing interpersonal slopes. Establishing this empirical relation is necessary for understanding the developmental trajectory of these related behaviors, as well as important individual differences over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temperament and externalizing behavior: Social preference and perceived acceptance as protective factors.

The purpose of this study was to explore the role of social preference and perceived acceptance as moderators of the relation between child temperament and externalizing behavior. Participants included 399 children evaluated at pre-kindergarten and kindergarten assessments. Pre-kindergarten children characterized by high temperamental Surgency/Extraversion were more likely to exhibit hyperactivity and aggression in the kindergarten classroom. In addition, kindergarten perceived acceptance and social preference moderated the relation between pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten hyperactivity for girls only. Girls who were characterized by high temperamental Surgency/Extraversion, high perceived acceptance, and low social preference were at risk for higher levels of teacher-reported and peer-nominated hyperactivity. In contrast, accurately high perceived acceptance was a protective factor for high temperamental Surgency/Extraversion. Findings are discussed in terms of risk and protective factors for externalizing behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of girls' and boys' aggressive-disruptive behavior trajectories across elementary school: Prediction to young adult antisocial outcomes.

Multiple group analysis and general growth mixture modeling was used to determine whether aggressive- disruptive behavior trajectories during elementary school, and their association with young adulthood antisocial outcomes, vary by gender. Participants were assessed longitudinally beginning at age 6 as part of an evaluation of 2 school-based preventive programs. Two analogous trajectories were found for girls and boys: chronic high aggression- disruption (CHAD) and stable low aggression- disruption (LAD). A 3rd class of low moderate aggression- disruption (LMAD) for girls and increasing aggression- disruption (IAD) for boys also was found. Girls and boys in analogous CHAD classes did not differ in trajectory level and course, but girls in the CHAD and LAD classes had lower rates of antisocial outcomes than boys. Girls with the LMAD trajectory differed from boys with the IAD trajectory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis.

In light of the selective focus on maternal (vs. paternal) psychopathology as a risk factor for child development, this meta-analysis examines the relative strength of the association between psychopathology in mothers versus fathers and the presence of internalizing and externalizing disorders in children. Associations were stronger between maternal than paternal psychopathology and the presence of internalizing (but not externalizing) problems in children, with all average effect sizes being small in magnitude. Relations were moderated by variables that highlight theoretically relevant differences between psychopathology in mothers versus fathers (e.g., age of children studied, type of parental psychopathology) and by variables related to methodological differences across studies (e.g., method of assessing psychopathology in parents and children, type of sample recruited, familial composition). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Efficacy of the RECAP intervention program for children with concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems.

The authors evaluated the efficacy of RECAP, a psychosocial intervention developed to treat concurrent internalizing and externalizing problem in children. Participants included 93 4th-grade children assigned to the treatment group or a no-treatment control group. The school-based program, which lasts the 9-month academic year, provides individual, group, classroom, teacher, and parent training in the RECAP skills-development curriculum, which was derived from empirically supported treatment programs for nonconcurrent internalizing and externalizing problems. Outcome assessments included parent-, teacher-, self-, and peer reports. A mixed hierarchical linear models analysis indicated that, overall, treatment children's rate of improvement in both internalizing and externalizing problems was significantly greater than that for control participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social impact and social preference as determinants of children's peer group status.

Evaluated 3 sociometric procedures utilizing a 2-dimensional social-impact and social-preference framework on 3 samples of 4th and 5th graders (ns?=?334, 173, and 89). The stability and distribution of classification, the relationship between dimensions, the validation of dimensions, and the validation of classification groups were considered. The method proposed by J. Peery (see record 1980-06647-001) appeared most problematic, and the procedure proposed by J. Coie et al (see record 1982-27928-001) was found to have nonexhaustive groups and the potential of misrepresenting Ss' social networks when standardized scores were used. An alternative 2-dimensional sociometric model based on probability theory was found to have excellent performance characteristics while still providing a constant frame of reference across social networks. The social reputational correlates of the impact and preference dimensions and the sociometric groups proposed by each model were investigated. Although social impact and social preference were reliable and valid determinants of peer group status, the need for alternative indicators of children's social standing in the peer group is discussed. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving the social behavior and peer acceptance of rejected boys: Effects of social skill training with instructions and prohibitions.

Thirty-two boys who were rejected by their peers in Grades 1–3 were identified on the basis of negative sociometric nominations and negative social behavior. They were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: (a) instructions to promote positive social behavior, (b) prohibitions to reduce negative social behavior, (c) a combination of instructions and prohibitions, or (d) no treatment. Interventions were applied during 10 half-hour school play sessions. Behavioral observations and peer and teacher ratings were collected prior to treatment, immediately after treatment, and at a follow-up assessment 6 weeks after treatment. Additional peer and teacher ratings were collected at a 1-year follow-up. Prohibitions combined with a response cost for negative behaviors resulted in immediate and stable declines in negative behavior and led to temporary increases in positive responses received from peers. Instructions and the reinforcement of specific social skills promoted sustained positive peer interactions 6 weeks after treatment. Only the combination of instructions and prohibitions led to improved sociometric ratings from nontarget treatment partners. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An analysis of the internalizing and externalizing behaviors of traumatized urban youth with and without PTSD.

To test the differential validity of the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) classification, 3 groups of youths (PTSD, traumatized PTSD negatives, and controls) were examined. Youth with major comorbid disorders were excluded. On the basis of an analysis of parent-derived Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) ratings, significant variations in CBCL scores were associated with PTSD but not with exposure to exceptional stress in the absence of PTSD. The results also indicated that traumatic exposure without the development of PTSD was not associated with higher estimates of psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classroom learning style and cooperative behavior of elementary school children.

Cooperative behavior of 243 3rd–7th graders who studied in cooperative small groups was compared to that of 150 pupils in classrooms conducted with whole-class instruction. An expanded version of M. Madsen's (1971) domino game was used to assess Ss' judgments about distributing payoff to themselves or to others in an altruistic, cooperative, or competitive fashion. In a 2nd experiment, 54 groups of 5 Ss were asked to construct new words from the letters appearing in an epigram, with the option to work alone or to collaborate with others. Ss from small-group classrooms were more cooperative on both judgmental and behavioral measures than were Ss from traditional classrooms. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School behavior check list: An inventory of deviant behavior for elementary school children.

Modified Ross' Pittsburgh Adjustment Survey Scales to form 7 scales, designated the School Behavior Check List, for teacher ratings of children's deviant behavior. Factor structure for each sex was identical, although mean scale scores differed significantly. The T-score norms were then computed from a general sample of elementary schoolchildren (N = 5,373) for male, female, and total populations. Analyses of variance showed that scales were affected by sex, race, socioeconomic level, and IQ. The Total Disability scale and IQ were inversely correlated (-.42). A 2nd-order factor analysis revealed 1 dimension, achievement competence. The scales appear to be useful instruments, and the inverse relationship between IQ and psychopathology may have major theoretical implications. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal characteristics and social support across the transition to motherhood: Associations with maternal behavior.

This study examined associations among personality, mood, stress, and social support during the transition to motherhood and quality of maternal behavior at 3 months postpartum. Seventy primiparous, married women completed questionnaires during pregnancy and at 3 months postpartum. Mother-infant interactions were observed in the home. Maternal sensitivity and expressivity were differentially predicted by social support and mood. Women reported more life stress and less satisfaction with spousal support postpartum than prenatally. Women who reported feeling more anxious and worried prenatally were rated as less expressive in interactions with their infants. Surprisingly, prenatal satisfaction with support from the new mothers' parents was negatively associated with maternal sensitivity. Results highlight the importance of examining prenatal as well as postpartum experiences as possible antecedents of the quality of maternal behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of grade retention on the social development of elementary school children.

When children do not exhibit certain minimum academic competencies, they are retained in grade. Despite the pervasiveness of this school practice, little is known about the effects of grade retention on children's social development. The present study explored the hypotheses that peer discrimination may be one factor contributing to the negative effects of grade retention reported in the previous literature. Specifically, it was expected that retained children would (a) receive unfavorable peer attributions, (b) be assigned lower social status, (c) be the targets of peer discrimination, and (d) have lower expectations for themselves and for school. Evidence for peer discrimination against retained children was found, but effects were moderated by the age, gender, relative physical size, and retention status of the rater. Contrary to prediction, retained children had higher self-esteem than did nonretained children. These and other findings were discussed in terms of school and peer influence on social development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inhibition and exuberance in preschool classrooms: Associations with peer social experiences and changes in cortisol across the preschool year.

Associations between behavioral inhibition and activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system, a stress-sensitive neuroendocrine system indexed by salivary cortisol, have varied widely across studies. In the current study, we examined the role of peer social experiences in moderating patterns of association between inhibition/risk-aversion and cortisol reactivity. As expected based on previous research, preschool children (N = 165, 78 boys, 87 girls, 3.0–5.0 years) had significantly different social experiences in their preschool classrooms depending on temperament. Highly inhibited/risk-averse children were less socially integrated, less dominant, and less involved in aggressive encounters than both average and highly exuberant/risk-seeking children, but they were no more likely to be peer rejected. Highly exuberant children were more dominant, exhibited anger more often, and had friendships characterized by higher conflict. Cortisol levels fell from fall to spring for average and highly exuberant children but not for highly inhibited children. Unexpectedly, for highly inhibited children, having friends and being more dominant and popular than other highly inhibited children was associated with increasing cortisol levels over the school year. In contrast, highly exuberant children who were less socially integrated than other highly exuberant children maintained higher cortisol levels. Results indicate that the types of social experiences that affect stress-responsive biological systems may differ markedly for highly inhibited and highly exuberant children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concurrent validity of the internalizing and externalizing profile patterns of the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist.

Explored the concurrent validity of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), using 163 6–11 yr old consecutive referrals to a child psychiatry outpatient department. Ss were administered a battery of psychological tests aimed at measuring cognitive (short form of the WISC—R and the Wide Range Achievement Test), personality (the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children and a measure of egocentrism), and social functioning (Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale and a measure of coping). Using the computerized classification of the CBCL, Ss in the optimal range and those with mixed profiles and high and low scores were determined. Parent and teacher ratings of pathology and competence were also obtained. Results indicate that CBCL internalizers were favored on a number of measures of adaptation when compared with CBCL externalizers, which is consistent with a wider literature on internalizing–externalizing syndrome types indicating that internalizers are generally more competent than are externalizers. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual amplification of pubertal transition effects on deviant peer affiliation and externalizing behavior among African American children.

The effects of the pubertal transition on behavior problems and its interaction with family and neighborhood circumstances were examined with a sample of 867 African American children 10-12 years of age. Pubertal development status, pubertal timing, and primary caregivers' parenting behaviors were significantly related to affiliation with deviant peers and externalizing behaviors. Externalizing behavior among early-maturing children was associated positively with primary caregivers' use of harsh-inconsistent discipline and negatively with nurturant-involved parenting practices. Disadvantaged neighborhood conditions were significantly associated with deviant peer affiliation. The effect of pubertal transition varied according to family and neighborhood conditions: Early-maturing children living in disadvantaged neighborhoods were significantly more likely to affiliate with deviant peers. Early-maturing children with harsh and inconsistent parents were significantly more likely to have externalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Delineating the construct network of the Personnel Reaction Blank: Associations with externalizing tendencies and normal personality.

Integrity testing has long been utilized in personnel selection to screen for tendencies toward counterproductive workplace behaviors. The construct of externalizing from the psychopathology literature represents a coherent spectrum marked by disinhibitory traits and behaviors. The present study drew on a sample of male and female undergraduates to examine the construct network of the Personnel Reaction Blank (PRB; H. G. Gough, R. D. Arvey, & P. Bradley, 2004), a measure of integrity, in relation to externalizing as well as normal-range personality constructs assessed by the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; A. Tellegen & N. G. Waller, 2008). Results revealed moderate to strong associations between several PRB scales and externalizing, which were largely accounted for by MPQ traits subsumed by Negative Emotionality and Constraint. After accounting for MPQ traits in the prediction of externalizing, a modest predictive increment was achieved when adding the PRB scales, particularly biographical indicators from the Prosocial Background subscale. The findings highlight externalizing as a focal criterion for scale development in the integrity testing literature and help delineate the construct network of the PRB within the domains of personality and psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of adult and peer social initiations on the social behavior of withdrawn, maltreated preschool children.

The present study compared peer and adult social-initiation interventions that were designed to increase the positive social behavior of withdrawn, maltreated preschool children. Thirty-six maltreated subjects were randomly assigned to peer treatment, adult treatment, or control conditions. In the peer treatment conditions, peer confederates were trained to make play overtures to play-group dyads. Adult and peer confederates were matched in the number of positive initiations made during treatment. Conditions for the control group were identical to those for the other groups except the control-group peers or adults were not trained to make initiations. The results indicated significant pre–post differences favoring the peer treatment group in both treatment and generalization settings. School adjustment data supported these findings. Additionally, there were no significant differences between the adult treatment group and the control group on any measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)