Primary grade writing instruction: A national survey.

A random sample of primary grade teachers (N = 178; 97% female) from across the United States was surveyed about their classroom instructional practices in writing. Most of the participating teachers (72%) took an eclectic approach to writing instruction, combining elements from the 2 most common methods for teaching writing: process writing and skills instruction. Although 90% of the teachers reported using most of the writing instructional practices that were included in the survey, there was considerable variability between teachers in how often they used specific practices. The study provides support for the following 7 recommendations for reforming primary grade writing instruction: (a) increase amount of time students spend writing; (b) increase time spent writing expository text; (c) provide better balance between time spent writing, learning writing strategies, and teaching writing skills; (d) place more emphasis on fostering students' motivation for writing; (e) develop stronger connections for writing between home and school; (f) make computers a more integral part of the writing program; and (g) improve professional development for writing instruction in teacher education programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive transfer and negative transfer/antilearning of problem-solving skills.

In problem-solving research, insights into the relationship between monitoring and control in the transfer of complex skills remain impoverished. To address this, in 4 experiments, the authors had participants solve 2 complex control tasks that were identical in structure but that varied in presentation format. Participants learned to solve the 2nd task on the basis of their original learning phase from the 1st task or learned to solve the 2nd task on the basis of another participant's learning phase. Experiment 1 showed that, under conditions in which the participant's learning phase was experienced twice, performance deteriorated in the 2nd task. In contrast, when the learning phases in the 1st and 2nd tasks differed, performance improved in the 2nd task. Experiment 2 introduced instructional manipulations that induced the same response patterns as those in Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, further manipulations were introduced that biased the way participants evaluated the learning phase in the 2nd task. In Experiment 4, judgments of self-efficacy were shown to track control performance. The implications of these findings for theories of complex skill acquisition are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation of achievement motivation to problem-solving effectiveness.

"When a problem is related to achievement goals… . Subjects with high achievement motivation were more likely to reach a solution than those with low motivation… the actual solution time for those who solved was not different for the two motivation groups… . Other findings… are discussed and tentative interpretations are offered." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of sex-role identification upon problem-solving skill.

An experimental test of the hypothesis that sex differences in problem-solving skill may be, at least in part, a function of differences in sex-role identification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of single and multiple strategy instruction on third-grade students' mathematical problem solving.

The purposes of this study were to assess the differential effects of a single strategy (schema-based instruction; SBI) versus multiple strategies (general strategy instruction, GSI) in promoting mathematical problem solving and mathematics achievement as well as to examine the influence of word problem-solving instruction on the development of computational skills. Eighty-eight 3rd graders and their teachers were assigned randomly to conditions (SBI and GSI). Students were pre- and posttested on mathematical problem-solving and computation tests and were posttested on the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment Mathematics test, a criterion-referenced test that measures student attainment of academic standards. Results revealed SBI to be more effective than GSI in enhancing students' mathematical word problem-solving skills at posttest and maintenance. Further, results indicate that the SBI groups' performance exceeded that of the GSI group on the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment measure. On the computation test, both groups made gains over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem-solving ability of creative and non-creative college students.

College students were given Guilford Alternate Uses, Guilford Consequences and an Anagram test which determined a creative and noncreative group. Rebus puzzles comprised of a neutral and threat category were administered to 4 subgroups formed to control set and practice effects. The heightened ability of creative Ss to observe accurately was supported by 2 significant findings: (1) faster solution times, and (2) increased number of solutions under an incomplete information condition. Results failed to confirm the hypothesis that creative individuals respond differentially in a threat situation. A 3rd significant finding obtained was that creative Ss gave up on puzzles they could not solve faster than noncreative Ss. An efficient problem-solving variable for creative individuals was proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem-solving rigidity and decision time.

"The present study failed to reveal any significant relationship between rigidity and decision time… . The present results suggest that attempts to explain behavioral rigidity may have to resort to more complex concepts than impulsivity and caution." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interaction of achievement motivation and ability in problem-solving success.

The hypotheses were that Armed Forces Qualifications Test scores would be related to problem-solving performance among Ss with high achievement motivation, that motivation would be related to performance with time constant, and that this relation would be greater below the median of the motivation distribution than above it. 96 Ss were used with a switch-light pattern apparatus. The first 2 hypotheses were supported, while the third was not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of stimulus class on the problem-solving behavior of schizophrenics and normals.

"The ability of normal and schizophrenic Ss to deal with information involving human and nonhuman stimuli was compared. When Ss were matched on the basis of ability to utilize information about nonhuman stimuli, it was found that the problem-solving behavior of schizophrenics was significantly disrupted by the presence of human stimuli in the test situation. When the same populations were matched for ability to solve problems involving human stimuli, no significant difference was found in their capacity to deal with information involving nonhuman stimuli." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital problem-solving behavior in depression and marital distress.

The present study examined the effects of depression and marital distress on behavior during a marital problem-solving interaction. A complete factorial design combined the presence or absence of a depressed wife with the presence or absence of marital distress, to produce four groups of participant couples. An increase in depressive behavior was the sole unique contribution of a depressed wife, occurring regardless of the level of marital distress. Increased aggressive behavior and decreased facilitative behavior were found to characterize the interactions of maritally distressed couples and were not influenced by depression. Resolution-oriented behavior remained unchanged as a result of either depression or marital distress. The results indicate that marital distress, in addition to depression, should be considered as a source of dysfunctional behavior in marital interactions involving depressed individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instruction begins in the home: Relations between parental instruction and children's self-regulation in the classroom.

The study examined the effectiveness of 3 aspects of parental instruction for predicting children's self-regulation in school. Fathers, mothers, and their children (52 families) were visited in their homes the summer before the child entered 3rd grade. Metacognitive content (task and strategy information), manner of instruction (small steps at an appropriate pace), and emotional support were coded from parents' instructions to their children for a problem-solving task. Children's self-regulatory behaviors in the classroom were assessed the following school year. Two patterns of relations were observed. Manner of instruction predicted children's attention to instructions and help-seeking in the classroom. Metacognitive content of instructions did not predict these aspects of self-regulation. In contrast, metacognitive content of instructions presented in an understandable manner with emotional support predicted children's monitoring and metacognitive talk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of different patterns on outcomes of problem-solving discussion.

Using an analysis of variance design, some effects of 3 patterns for problem-solving discussion were investigated experimentally. All 3 patterns began with an analysis of the problem, but differed thereafter: ideation-criteria (A), criteria-ideation (B), and solution (C). 135 students Ss were randomly assigned to 27 groups of 5 Ss and a trained leader. All groups discussed 3 problems, using each pattern once. Patterns A and B, incorporating deferred judgment, yielded significantly more ideas (p X2, p     

Creativity and domain specificity: The effect of task type on multiple indexes of creative problem-solving.

This study addresses the issue of domain specificity within creativity by understanding the characteristics of creative tasks and how participants react to the task. Participants (N = 187) were given 1 of 3 realistic everyday problems to solve. The problems differed in terms of complexity, involvement, and problem-based efficacy. Problem solutions were evaluated on several measures of creativity. Results indicate that creativity was influenced by the type of problem solved and the measure of creativity used to evaluate the solution. Furthermore, these results were obtained after controlling for the effect of ability. Results imply that not all real-world problems are equivalent and that researchers need to investigate how reactions to different problems and the creativity index used may influence conclusions regarding creative problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instruction by mothers and fathers during problem solving with their young children.

Mothers and fathers of 163 5-year-olds were observed interacting with their children in dyads on 2 separate occasions on a familiar and unfamiliar cognitive activity. Within- and between-family comparisons were conducted. Few differences in the instruction provided by mothers and fathers appeared, and those that did were on the unfamiliar task. On this task, instruction by mothers, within and across families, was more responsive to children's changing skill than was instruction by fathers. Directive and disapproving comments by parents were related to poorer posttest performance by the child. High level of instruction by both parents was related to better posttest performance than was low level of instruction by parents. Contributions of parents to their children's cognitive development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Homogeneity of member personality and its effect on group problem-solving.

The capacity to solve problems was studied in 2 groups, one composed of Ss with similar personalities (as measured by the Guilford-Zimmerman Tempermant Survey), the "homogenous" group, and a "nonhomogenous" group. Several aspects of the solution were studied with the result that "The degree of homogeneity of personality of the members of the groups used in this study was seen to have a direct bearing on the effectiveness of the groups in producing solutions to problems," and "The results imply that a multiplicity of perceptions of a problem are productive of creative solutions." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing pre-service teachers' training in empirically-validated behavioral instruction practices.

Although many behaviorally-based instructional practices have been shown empirically to promote student achievement, it is unknown to what extent teachers receive adequate training in these methods. This study surveyed master's-level elementary, secondary, and special education students about their coursework and applied training in 25 behavioral instruction practices and principles (e.g., prompting, graphing progress, reinforcement). A total of 110 pre-service teachers participated, representing six different colleges and universities located in the Northeast. Respondents generally reported receiving very little training in behavioral instruction practices and received the least amount of training in academic assessment strategies and instructional programs (e.g., Curriculum-Based Assessment, Direct Instruction). Special education students reported significantly more training in academic assessment than elementary or secondary education students. Implications for school consultation practices, in-service teacher training, and students' academic progress are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

When shoes become hammers: Goal-derived categorization training enhances problem-solving performance.

Problem-solving theories have not examined how solvers navigate their knowledge to interpret problem situations or to plan strategies toward goals. In this article, the author argues that success in problem solving depends on the solver's ability to construct goal-derived categories, namely categories that are formed ad hoc to serve goals during the instantiation of problem frames. Experiment 1 (N = 140) showed improved problem-solving performance after training to construct goal-derived categories. Experiment 2 (N = 80) demonstrated that effects of training in category construction can be obtained without participants being explicitly informed regarding the relevance of training to problem solving. These studies suggest that problem solving is a dynamic expression of goal-directed cognition and provide evidence for the involvement of categorization in problem-solving processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Explicitly teaching for transfer: Effects on third-grade students' mathematical problem solving.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of explicitly teaching for transfer by (a) broadening the categories by which students group problems requiring the same solution methods and (b) prompting students to search novel problems for these broad categories. This transfer treatment was combined with instruction on solution methods. The effectiveness of a combined treatment (transfer-plus-solution instruction) was contrasted to solution instruction alone and to teacher-designed instruction. Twenty-four 3rd-grade teachers, with 375 students, were assigned randomly to conditions. Treatments were conducted for 16 weeks. Improvement on immediate- and near-transfer measures supported the utility of solution instruction. Improvement on near- and far-transfer measures revealed the added contribution of explicitly teaching for transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)