Balancing market priorities with security issues

The control of a heterogeneous, widely dispersed, yet globally interconnected system is a serious technological problem. This becomes even more complex and difficult to control for optimal efficiency and maximum benefit to the ultimate consumers while still allowing all its business components to compete fairly and freely. While creating a smart grid with self-healing capabilities is no longer a distant dream, considerable technical challenges as well as several economic and policy issues remain to be addressed. To address these and other vulnerabilities, the electric power industry and all pertinent public and private sectors must work together with other critical infrastructure stakeholders. Given economic, societal and quality of life issues and the ever-increasing interdependencies among infrastructures, a key challenge is whether the electricity infrastructure will evolve to become the primary support for the 21st century's digital society or be left behind as a 20th century industrial relic.     

Measuring the energy security implications of fossil fuel resource concentration

Economic assessments of the welfare effects of energy insecurity are typically uncertain and fail to provide clear guidance to policy makers. As a result, governments have had little analytical support to complement expert judgment in the assessment of energy security. This is likely to be inadequate when considering multiple policy goals, and in particular the intersections between energy security and climate change mitigation policies. This paper presents an alternative approach which focuses on gauging the causes of energy insecurity as a way to assist policy making. The paper focuses on the energy security implications of fossil fuel resource concentration and distinguishes between the price and physical availability components of energy insecurity. It defines two separate indexes: the energy security price index (ESPI), based on the measure of market concentration in competitive fossil fuel markets, and the energy security physical availability index (ESPAI), based on the measure of supply flexibility in regulated markets. The paper illustrates the application of ESPI and ESPAI with two case studies—France and the United Kingdom—looking at the evolution of both indexes to 2030.     

PWR-FBR with closed fuel cycle for a sustainable nuclear energy supply in China

From the thermal reactor to the fast reactor and then to the fusion reactor; this is the three-step strategy that has been decided for a sustainable nuclear energy supply in China. As the main thermal reactor type, the commercialized development phase of the pressurized water reactor (PWR) has been stepped up. The development of the fast reactor (FBR) is still in the early stage, marked by China experimental fast reactor (CEFR), which is currently under construction. According to the strategy study on the fast reactor development in China, its engineering development will be divided into three steps: the CEFR with a power of 65 MWt/20 MWe; the China prototype fast reactor (CPFR) with a power of 1 500 MWt/600 MWe; and the China demonstration fast reactor (CDFR) with a power of 2 500–3 750 MWt/1 000–1 500 MWe. With regards to the fuel cycle, a 100 t/a PWR spent fuel reprocessing pilot plant and a 500 kg/ a MOX fabrication plant are under construction. A project involving the construction of an industrial reprocessing plant and an MOX fabrication plant are also under application phase.     

Public attitudes to nuclear energy

The last decade has seen a marked increase in public concern about nuclear energy. As a consequence, it is now recognized that the future of nuclear energy will not only depend on technical and economic factors, but that public acceptability of this technology will play a crucial role in its long-term future. This paper summarizes trends in public reactions to nuclear power in various countries and discusses a number of studies on public beliefs and attitudes to nuclear power in general, and to the building of a nuclear power plant near to one's home. It is concluded that the qualitative aspects of the possible risks of nuclear energy play an important role in the public's perception of this technology. It is also clear, however, that differences in perception of the risks do not embrace all the relevant aspects of the public's assessment of nuclear energy. Public reaction is also related to more general beliefs and values, such as emphasis on economic versus social priorities, attitudes to technology and environmental concern.     

New nuclear power in the UK: A strategy for energy security?

The aim of this paper is to explore the extent to which the construction of new nuclear power plants in the UK can safeguard or enhance energy security. The paper starts with a discussion of energy security, and breaks it down into four main categories of threat. These include threats due to fossil fuel scarcity and external disruptions, problems due to a lack of investment in infrastructure, threats due to technology or infrastructure failure, and risks due to domestic activism or terrorism. The paper then discusses one of the most common strategies put forward to improve security—the promotion of diversity within energy systems. Following this, the paper assesses the potential for new nuclear investment to ameliorate security threats in each of the four categories introduced earlier in the paper. The paper concludes that whilst nuclear investment can help to mitigate some threats to UK energy security, the government's case for supporting this investment ignores some equally important security issues. As a result, the energy security case for nuclear power has not yet been made.     

Future regional nuclear fuel cycle cooperation in East Asia: Energy security costs and benefits

Economic growth in East Asia has rapidly increased regional energy, and especially, electricity needs. Many of the countries of East Asia have sought or are seeking to diversify their energy sources and bolster their energy supply and/or environmental security by developing nuclear power. Rapid development of nuclear power in East Asia brings with it concerns regarding nuclear weapons proliferation associated with uranium enrichment and spent nuclear fuel management. This article summarizes the development and analysis of four different scenarios of nuclear fuel cycle management in East Asia, including a scenario where each major nuclear power user develops uranium enrichment and reprocessing of spent fuel individually, scenarios featuring cooperation in the full fuel cycle, and a scenario where reprocessing is avoided in favor of dry cask storage of spent fuel. The material inputs and outputs and costs of key fuel cycle elements under each scenario are summarized.     

Supplying the energy of islands with geopolitical positions using distributed generations to increase energy security

The islands usually face challenges in their energy supply due to their specific location. On islands that are distant from the land, power is typically provided by diesel generators. Therefore, oil tankers must regularly refuel the island in order to supply the necessary fuel for diesel generators. As a result, if the fueling procedure is not completed for whatever reason, the island will not receive the necessary energy, which will result in an unavoidable loss of load. Due to their strategic location, some of these islands are used as military islands to protect the nations and waterways. Given the vital role that these military islands play for nations, a delay in supplying the island with energy can seriously harm security, the economy, and other factors. Transferring fuel to these islands is typically difficult, and in some cases impossible, under certain circumstances, such as war. Therefore, reducing the island's reliance on fossil fuels as much as feasible is vital to ensure the energy security of these specific islands. Diesel generators provide electricity to Larak Island, which is situated in the Strait of Hormuz. Larak Island serves as a military island due to its geopolitical location, hence it is crucial to consistently provide Larak with electricity. Therefore, in this paper, a combination of distributed generations and system storage is used to supply the Larak island. The photovoltaic, wind and tidal plants are considered the main power plants, and fuel cells with electrolyzers and hydrogen tanks have also been used as storage systems. In addition, the diesel generator is considered the system backup. The considered objective functions to design and manage Larak island's power supply system are reducing diesel generators fuel consumption, reducing electricity cost, and reducing electricity outages and lost power generation of renewable resources.     

Conjugate conduction-forced convection heat transfer analysis of a rectangular nuclear fuel element with non-uniform volumetric energy generation

The main objective of this paper is to present a comparative study of uniform and non-uniform volumetric energy generation in a rectangular nuclear fuel element washed by upward moving stream of liquid sodium. Employing finite difference schemes, the boundary layer equations governing the flow and thermal fields in the fluid domain are solved simultaneously with two-dimensional energy equation in the solid domain by satisfying the continuity of temperature and heat flux at the solid–fluid interface. Numerical results are presented for a wide range of aspect ratio, A_r, conduction–convection parameter, N_cc, total energy generation parameter, Q_t, and flow Reynolds number, Re_H. It is concluded that for the same total energy generation, a somewhat realistic non-uniform volumetric energy generation puts greater restriction on the thermal power generation as compared to the idealistic uniform volumetric energy generation. Further, it is found that despite the total energy generation being the same for two cases, the non-uniform volumetric energy generation within the fuel element results in considerably higher energy dissipation rate.     

The role of nuclear energy in the more efficient exploitation of fossil fuel resources

The energy theory of value, being a valuable addition to the debate on the rational exploitation of man's energy reserves, is applied in order to clarify the presently confused energy input/output relations for nuclear and solar systems as they interact with fossil fuel. It is shown on the basis of purely energetics considerations that the nuclear route—at present and in future—is a very efficient way to stretch out and finally to substitute for the limited fossil fuel resources. This is particularly true if one considers the transistory phase where the substituting process has to exhibit a rapid exponential growth rate. The energetical effectiveness of the production of a synthetic fuel, as for example hydrogen by water splitting processes, is addressed at the end and serves to give an idea how effectively the energy available in fossil fuels can be amplified by virtue of the coupling of nuclear energy into the process.     

A proper spent nuclear fuel management strategy could enhance the continuity of nuclear power in the Spanish energy mix

This article presents two economic analyses performed with the Mariño model, which was specially designed to analyse the costs of different spent nuclear fuel (SNF) management strategies in the real Spanish context. These analyses are: (a) a Monte Carlo study for those strategies and (b) the effects of a longer operational lifetime for the Spanish nuclear power plants (NPPs) on the costs of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) management. For the first analysis, a triangular distribution for the different unitary costs was assumed and the data and assumptions from numerous studies were used to obtain the values required for the distribution. The second analysis was performed for the current official shutdown dates for the NPPs, and the results were compared to other operational lifetime scenarios. The main assumption for these scenarios was a progressive shutdown of the reactors, in order to avoid numerous shutdowns in a few years. These scenarios were proposed for 40 to 60 years of mean operational lifetime of the reactors. The results show that, for all scenarios analysed, the additional electricity production due to longer operational lifetimes compensate the extra costs caused by the larger amount of SNF to be managed. Additionally, for the current SNF management strategy, a progressive shutdown at 40 years of mean operational lifetime has shown to entail lower costs than the official shutdown scenario. However, a strategy without a centralised interim storage facility would be the most economically favourable one for all the scenarios analysed.     

Heat and fluid flow characteristics of liquid sodium flowing past a nuclear fuel element with non-uniform energy generation

The prime objective of the present study is to analyze numerically the steady state fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of liquid sodium as a coolant flowing past over a rectangular nuclear fuel element having non-uniform volumetric energy generation. Accordingly, employing stream function-vorticity formulation and using finite difference schemes, the equations governing the flow and thermal fields in the coolant are solved simultaneously with energy equation for the fuel element by satisfying the conditions of continuity of temperature and heat flux at the solid–fluid interface. Keeping Prandtl number Pr = 0.005 for liquid sodium as constant, numerical results are presented and discussed for a wide range of aspect ratio A_r, conduction–convection parameter N_cc, total energy generation parameter Q_t and Reynolds number Re_H. It is concluded that the rate of heat dissipation from the fuel element to the coolant is independent of A_r, N_cc and Q_t, whereas it increases in proportion to the increase in Re_H. It is also found that for a given material of the fuel element, there is an upper limiting value of N_cc and Re_H beyond which decrease in coolant temperature is negligibly small.     

Linking consumer energy efficiency with security of supply

Most modern energy policies seek to achieve systematic ongoing incremental increases in consumer energy efficiency, since this contributes to improved security of supply, favourable environmental outcomes and increased economic efficiency. Yet realised levels of efficiency are typically well below the most cost-effective equilibrium due to variety of behavioural and organisational barriers, which are often linked to information constraints. In addition efficient users are normally unrewarded for collective benefits to system security and to the environment, thus reducing the incentives for energy consumers to invest in efficiency improvements. This paper examines the dichotomies and symmetries between supply- and demand-side solutions to energy security concerns and reviews opportunities to overcome barriers to improved consumer efficiency. A security market is identified as a mechanism to promote both demand- and supply-side investments that support electricity system security. Such a market would assist in setting the optimal quantity of reserves while achieving an efficient balance between supply- and demand-side initiatives. It would also help to smooth overall investment throughout the energy system by encouraging incremental approaches, such as distributed generation and demand-side alternatives where they provide competitive value. Although the discussion is applicable to energy systems in general, it focuses primarily on electricity in New Zealand.     

住宅区电气节能设计的几个途径

本文从变压器选择、配电系统和绿色照明等三个方面讨论了住宅小区节能设计的方法及实现的途径。     

氨燃料缓解能源安全及替代天然气的可行性分析

文章主要针对我国面临的能源安全问题及现阶段出现的北方地区"气荒"现象,结合氨燃料储能密度高、燃烧清洁、热值较高、易储存运输、产业基础完善、用处广泛的特点以及厦门大学的锅炉及发电机掺氨燃烧运行成功的实验结果,定量分析氨燃料可缓解能源安全问题的程度及解决"气荒"问题的规模与容量。分析结果表明:引入氨能源体系可以有效优化中国的能源结构,改善过度依赖能源进口的现状,解决天然气短缺的问题。     

Approaches to energy conservation management in beverage-related industries and their effectiveness

We report the conclusions of a detailed study of management methods used in breweries, distilleries, maltings and dairies, and their relative effectiveness in achieving significant savings. The study assessed the significance of both the size of the organization and its use of energy cost-centres, targetting, monitoring and specific energy variances to the achievement of substantial energy cost savings. A high proportion of larger organizations employed one or more accounting techniques in the pursuit of energy efficiency. The use of targetting procedures, especially associated with a cost-centre analysis was significant in reducing the specific energy content of production costs, but higher than median costsavings for the sample as a whole was more frequently achieved in business where monitoring at monthly intervals (or more frequently) and especially where regular meetings of an energy management group or ‘panel’ was taking place within the firm.     

The potential contribution of nuclear energy to U.S. energy requirements

The relative contribution of nuclear energy to the cumulative total primary energy use in the United States in the period 1975 to 2000 has been estimated for several growth scenarios. If the nuclear capacity grows as recently forecast by ERDA, and if the total primary power use grows by 2%/yr, as recently recommended by the FEA, nuclear energy will contribute 10.8% to our cumulative primary energy use.     

Evaluating energy security performance from 1990 to 2010 for eighteen countries

This study provides an index for evaluating national energy security policies and performance among the United States, European Union, Australia, New Zealand, China, India, Japan, South Korea, and the ten countries comprising the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Drawn from research interviews, a survey instrument, and a focused workshop, the article first argues that energy security ought to be comprised of five dimensions related to availability, affordability, technology development, sustainability, and regulation. The article then breaks these dimensions down into 20 components and correlates them with 20 metrics that constitute a comprehensive energy security index. We find that the top three performers of our index for all data points and times are Japan, Brunei, and the United States and the worst performers Vietnam, India, and Myanmar. Malaysia, Australia, and Brunei saw their energy security improve the most from 1990 to 2010 whereas Laos, Cambodia, and Myanmar saw it decline the most. The article concludes by calling for more research on various aspects of our index and its results.     

新颖的核能燃气轮机总能系统的开拓性研究

基于系统综合和能的梯级利用的思路对核能燃气轮机总能系统开拓研究的进展,包括三方面：（1）提出若干高温气冷堆核能联合循环发电新系统;（2）开拓出两种核能联合循环多联产新系统;（3）探索出几种核电站联合循环技术更新改造新途径等;建立了完整的系统特性模型进行了模拟分析,揭示了它们的热力学特性,概括了各种用途的核电燃气轮机总能系统新系统,新方案的性能与特点。     

The efficient use of energy: Tracing the global flow of energy from fuel to service

The efficient use of energy is a key component of current efforts to reduce carbon emissions. There are two factors which are important when assessing the potential gains from energy efficiency technologies: the scale of energy flow and the technical potential for improvement. However, most efficiency analyses consider only the potential gains from known efficiency technologies, while ignoring the complex flow of energy through the chains of conversion devices. In response, this paper traces the global flow of energy, from fuels through to the final services, and focuses on the technical conversion devices and passive systems in each energy chain. By mapping the scale and complexity of global energy flow, the technical areas which are likely to deliver the largest efficiency gains can be identified. The result is a more consistent basis for directing future research and policy decisions in the area of energy efficiency.     

Operating schedule of a combined energy network system with fuel cell

The chromosome model showing system operation pattern is applied to GA (genetic algorithm), and the method of optimization operation planning of energy system is developed. The optimization method of this operation planning was applied to the compound system of methanol‐steam‐reforming‐type fuel cell, geothermal heat pump and the electrolysis tank of water. The operation planning was performed for the energy system using the energy demand pattern of the individual residence of Sapporo city. From analysis results, the amount of outputs of a solar module and the relation of the operation cost of the system, which are changed by the weather were clarified. The representation day in February of the ratio of the operation cost in case of (0% of output rates) the rainy weather to the time of fine weather (100% of output rates) is 1.12. And the representation day in July is 1.71. Furthermore, the optimal capacity of accumulation of electricity and thermal storage was estimated, and they are 308 and 23 MJ, respectively. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.