A computer simulation study of cortical imaging from scalp potentials

In this paper, computer simulation studies were conducted to test the feasibility of imaging brain electrical activity from the scalp electroencephalograms. The inhomogeneous three-concentric-sphere head model was used to represent the head volume conductor. Closed spherical dipole layers, consisting of several thousand uniformly distributed dipoles, were used to reconstruct the cortical potential maps corresponding to neuronal sources located inside the brain. Simulation results indicate that the present procedure can image both cortical and deep sources, and for the cortical sources, a spatial resolution as high as 1.2 cm can be achieved.     

Differential roles of p300 and PCAF acetyltransferases in muscle differentiation

To determine the possibility of discriminating multi-sources in the brain by 3D vector magnetic field measurement of a magnetoencephalogram (MEG), measurements were made of magnetic fields produced by two current dipoles implanted in a spherical head model. The 3D vector magnetic field measurements were made by using a 3D second-order gradiometer connected to three rf-SQUIDs, which can detect magnetic field components perpendicular to and tangential to the scalp. The MEG distribution measuring the magnetic field perpendicular to the scalp was not helpful in estimating the location and number of sources because of the lack of a dipole pattern. By referring to the MEG distribution measuring the magnetic field distribution tangential to the scalp, however, two current sources could be clearly discriminated in a spherical head model. It was found that this MEG distribution measuring tangential to the scalp could provide information on new constraint conditions for the calculation of inverse problems with multi-sources. These results were also confirmed by measurement of the mixed somatosensory evoked fields elicited by simultaneous electric stimulation to the median nerve and the thumb.     

Neuroimage of voluntary movement: topography of the Bereitschaftspotential, a 64-channel DC current source density study

The Bereitschaftspotential (BP) was recorded at 56 scalp positions when 17 healthy subjects performed brisk extensions of the right index finger. Aim of the study was to contribute to our understanding of the physiology underlying the BP and, in particular, to specify the situation at BP onset. For this purpose, the spatial pattern of the BP was analyzed in short time intervals (35 and/or 70 ms) starting 2.51 s before movement onset. For each time segment a spherical model of the BP was calculated by using spline interpolation. Then the spatial distribution of the electric potential at the scalp surface was transformed into a spatial distribution of current source densities (CSD map). Onset times of the BP and onset times of initial CSD-activity ranged between 2.23 and 1.81 s before movement onset. We selected a time window between 1.6 and 1.5 s before movement onset in order to analyze the spatial CSD pattern in each subject. In 10 subjects there was a significant current sink in the scalp area located over medial-wall motor areas (pre-SMA, SMA proper and anterior cingulate cortex: electrode positions C1, C2, FCz, Cz) in the absence of a significant current sink over the primary motor cortex (MI: electrode positions C3, CP3, and CP5). In three subjects significant current sinks were present at both sites and in another three subjects a current sink only over the lateral motor cortex was observed. In one subject no significant current sinks were measured. It is concluded that there is a large group of subjects (13/17) in whom BP at onset is associated with a current sink over medial-wall motor areas. At a later time interval (0.6 to 0.5 s before movement onset), significant current sinks were found in 13 subjects in medial and in 10 subjects in lateral recordings. These data were considered to be consistent with the hypothesis that, at least in a majority of subjects, medial-wall motor areas are activated earlier than lateral motor areas when organizing the initiation of a simple self-paced movement. Surface-recordings of the EEG do not allow further specification of cortical areas, which contribute to the current sinks. But in context with the current literature of the electrophysiology of nonhuman primates and of brain imaging in humans it is suggested that SMA and anterior cingulate cortex contribute to the current sink, the fronto-central midline, and that the primary motor cortex (MI) contributes to the current sink in the scalp area, which is located above MI and closely posterior to it.     

The uniform double layer model and myocardial infarction: forward solution consideration

The Uniform Double Layer (UDL) model of the cardiac generator is often used for forward simulation of body surface potentials (BSPs). The model also proved to be very useful for the inverse computation of heart activation. However, for the purposes of Myocardial Infarction (MI) modelling mostly the Multiple Dipole (MD) models are used. In our study, the ability of UDL model to represent the activation of the heart with an old MI was examined. The finite element model of the heart was used to simulate electrical activation of the heart with an old MI. Different locations of endocardial MI were used. For each of them three cases were considered according to the scale of the infarcted area: small and medium endocardial and large transmural. For the further computation of the electric field within the torso volume conductor two types of UDL representation of the cardiac generator were used. For the first UDL model, supposing the scared tissue to be unexcitable, an "infarcted" surface (different from the "healthy" surface) of activated myocardium was generated for each case of MI. Times when activation wavefront reached particular nodes on the surface served as an input for the forward computation of BSPs. To be able to understand the behaviour of the UDL, we also created the second UDL model, where the "infarcted activation sequence" was approximated on the original "healthy" heart surface. The BSPs were computed for each case of MI using both UDL cardiac generators. The boundary element method with the inhomogeneous volume conductor was used for computations. The BSPs generated by both models for the same case of MI were compared using the correlation coefficient. The results show, that it is possible to find an approximation of the "infarcted activation sequence" on the "healthy" heart generator surface in a way that BSPs generated by both models have a correlation coefficient higher than 0.96 for the entire period of depolarisation. Visualisation of the epicardial isochrones might help to understand the UDL model behaviour under the MI conditions. It would be useful for the correct interpretation of the results when using the UDL model for inverse solution. (Fig. 7, Ref. 5.)     

Determination of volume fractions of texture components with standard distributions in Euler space

The intensities of texture components are modeled by Gaussian distribution functions in Euler space. The multiplicities depend on the relation between the texture component and the crystal and sample symmetry elements. Higher multiplicities are associated with higher maximum values in the orientation distribution function (ODF). The ODF generated by Gaussian function shows that the S component has a multiplicity of 1, the brass and copper components, 2, and the Goss and cube components, 4 in the cubic crystal and orthorhombic sample symmetry. Typical texture components were modeled using standard distributions in Euler space to calculate a discrete ODF, and their volume fractions were collected and verified against the volume used to generate the ODF. The volume fraction of a texture component that has a standard spherical distribution can be collected using the misorientation approach. The misorientation approach means integrating the volume-weighted intensity that is located within a specified cut-off misorientation angle from the ideal orientation. The volume fraction of a sharply peaked texture component can be collected exactly with a small cut-off value, but textures with broad distributions (large full-width at half-maximum (FWHM)) need a larger cut-off value. Larger cut-off values require Euler space to be partitioned between texture components in order to avoid overlapping regions. The misorientation approach can be used for texture's volume in Euler space in a general manner. Fiber texture is also modeled with Gaussian distribution, and it is produced by rotation of a crystal located at g ₀, around a sample axis. The volume of fiber texture in wire drawing or extrusion also can be calculated easily in the unit triangle with the angle distance approach.     

A nonoverlap model for the dispersion of spherical particles

The dispersion of randomly positioned spherical particles can be characterized in terms of probability functions for the center to center spacings to its neighbors. This model is used with a correction procedure for describing the dispersion of nonoverlapping spherical particles. Modification of the random model to account for the bias introduced by excluding overlap is carried out by setting the neighbor probability functions equal to zero for radial distances which cause overlap, and then renormalizing the functions. Comparison of the probability distributions and their moments for the nonoverlap model with Monte Carlo simulation data show that it provides a valid approximation for the dispersion of spherical particles with volume fractions as high as 30 pct. The effects of volume fraction and size distribution of the particles upon the nonoverlap probability functions and their moments are described. Radial density functions are also calculated for both the random and the nonoverlap models.     

Determination of volume fractions of texture components with standard distributions in euler space

The intensities of texture components are modeled by Gaussian distribution functions in Euler space. The multiplicities depend on the relation between the texture component and the crystal and sample symmetry elements. Higher multiplicities are associated with higher maximum values in the orientation distribution function (ODF). The ODF generated by Gaussian function shows that the S component has a multiplicity of 1, the brass and copper components, 2, and the Goss and cube components, 4 in the cubic crystal and orthorhombic sample symmetry. Typical texture components were modeled using standard distributions in Euler space to calculate a discrete ODF, and their volume fractions were collected and verified against the volume used to generate the ODF. The volume fraction of a texture component that has a standard spherical distribution can be collected using the misorientation approach. The misorientation approach means integrating the volume-weighted intensity that is located within a specified cut-off misorientation angle from the ideal orientation. The volume fraction of a sharply peaked texture component can be collected exactly with a small cut-off value, but textures with broad distributions (large full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) need a larger cut-off value. Larger cut-off values require Euler space to be partitioned between texture components in order to avoid overlapping regions. The misorientation approach can be used for texture’s volume in Euler space in a general manner. Fiber texture is also modeled with Gaussian distribution, and it is produced by rotation of a crystal located at g ₀, around a sample axis. The volume of fiber texture in wire drawing or extrusion also can be calculated easily in the unit triangle with the angle distance approach.     

Engineering Model of Dilute Pneumatic Conveying

We introduce a simple model of gas–particle flow in a pipeline, which can be used as a tool in engineering design. A chaotic particle motion due to the particle–particle and particle–wall collisions is modeled by analogy with the motion of gas molecules. The pressure gradient is calculated as a sum of particles drag forces per unit volume. As a result, the problem of pressure losses is reduced to the solution of one nonlinear algebraic equation. The gas viscous friction losses are found by the Colebrook–White approximation. The model is validated by testing it against the experimental data and other, more sophisticated, models known in the literature.     

A nonoverlap model for the dispersion of spherical particles

The dispersion of randomly positioned spherical particles can be characterized in terms of probability functions for the center to center spacings to its neighbors. This model is used with a correction procedure for describing the dispersion of nonoverlapping spherical particles. Modification of the random model to account for the bias introduced by excluding overlap is carried out by setting the neighbor probability functions equal to zero for radial distances which cause overlap, and then renormalizing the functions. Comparison of the probability distributions and their moments for the nonoverlap model with Monte Carlo simulation data show that it provides a valid approximation for the dispersion of spherical particles with volume fractions as high as 30 pct. The effects of volume fraction and size distribution of the particles upon the nonoverlap probability functions and their moments are described. Radial density functions are also calculated for both the random and the nonoverlap models. Formerly with Division of Minerals Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.     

Potential and current density distributions of cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) in a four-concentric-spheres model

Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) has been successfully used for treatment of many psychiatric diseases. Its noninvasive nature is its major advantage over other forms of treatments such as drugs. It is postulated that the low electric current of CES causes the release of neurotransmitters. However, the current pathways have not been extensively investigated. In the following paper, analytical and numerical methods are used to determine the distribution of potential and current density in a four zone concentric spheres model of the human head when excited by two electrodes diametrically opposite to each other. Because of the azimuthal symmetry, which is assumed in this study, a two-dimensional (2-D) finite difference approximation is derived in the spherical grid. The current density distribution is projected around the center of the model, where the thalamus is modeled as a concentric sphere. All dimensions and electrical properties of the model are adapted from clinical data. Results of this simulation indicate that, in contrast to previous beliefs, a small fraction of the CES current does reaches the thalamic area and may facilitate the release of neurotransmitters.     

GIS Based Distributed Model for Soil Erosion and Rate of Sediment Outflow from Catchments

A spatially distributed rainfall–runoff–soil erosion model capable of handling catchment heterogeneity in terms of landuse, soil, slope, and rainfall has been developed and applied to data from several catchments. The model operates on a cell basis and accepts distributed inputs from a raster geographic information system (GIS). The catchment digital elevation model is used in the model to generate drainage paths from each of the discretized cells to the catchment outlet in proper hydrologic order. Following the computational hydrological sequencing thus derived, the mechanics of overland flow are modeled using a finite volume based numerical solution of the diffusion wave approximation of the St. Venant equations and the process of soil erosion is modeled using a numerical solution of the sediment continuity equation with appropriate auxiliary equations. The spatial information for each cell of the catchment was generated using digital analysis of satellite data and published information by making use of commercially available image processing and raster GIS packages. Results of model application on several catchments indicate that the model can compute temporal distribution of the sediment outflow rate at the catchment outlet for storm events reasonably well. The cell-based structure of the model also allows for computation of the spatial distribution of computed variables such as the amount of soil erosion.     

Endotoxin impairs agonist-induced calcium mobilization in bovine aortic myocytes by a nitric oxide-independent mechanism

In this study we investigated the effects of lambda correction, generalized cross-validation (GCV), and Tikhonov regularization techniques on the realistic Laplacian (RL) estimate of highly-sampled (128 channels) simulated and actual EEG potential distributions. The simulated EEG potential distributions were mathematically generated over a 3-shell spherical head model (analytic potential distributions). Noise was added to the analytic potential distributions to mimic EEG noise. The magnitude of the noise was 20, 40 and 80% that of the analytic potential distributions. Performance of the regularization techniques was evaluated by computing the root mean square error (RMSE) between regularized RL estimates and analytic surface Laplacian solutions. The actual EEG data were human movement-related and short-latency somatosensory-evoked potentials. The RL of these potentials was estimated over a realistically-shaped, magnetic resonance-constructed model of the subject's scalp surface. The RL estimate of the simulated potential distributions was improved with all the regularization techniques. However, the lambda correction and Tikhonov regularization techniques provided more precise Laplacian solutions than the GCV computation (P < 0.05); they also improved better than the GCV computation the spatial detail of the movement-related and short-latency somatosensory-evoked potential distributions. For both simulated and actual EEG potential distributions the Tikhonov and lambda correction techniques provided nearly equal Laplacian solutions, but the former offered the advantage that no preliminary simulation was required to regularize the RL estimate of the actual EEG data.     

Unbiased and efficient estimation of bladder volume with MR imaging

Almost all methods of measuring residual volume of urine in the bladder of patients undergoing urologic assessment are biased to an unknown extent. The authors describe the application of an unbiased stereologic technique for estimating the volume of bladder urine known as the Cavalieri method. The method requires imaging of a series of systematic (ie, equally spaced) parallel sections through the bladder. Such data can be conveniently obtained with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. If sampling begins at a position randomly chosen within the distance corresponding to the section interval, bladder volume is estimated without bias as the sum of the areas of the bladder sections on the images multiplied by the section interval. Computer-aided point-counting techniques represent an efficient means of obtaining the required section area estimates. Optimum sectioning and point counting densities for estimating bladder volume were established by analyzing detailed data sets obtained in five volunteers. It was shown that if an average of only 20 points were counted in each of only five systematic sections through the bladder, the volume of bladder urine was estimated with a coefficient of error of about 5%. By studying these five volunteers and an additional 13 with MR imaging and the Cavalieri method, the authors showed that the difference between the volume of urine in the bladder before and after micturition is unbiased (ie, shows no systematic difference) with respect to the volume of urine voided by the subjects.     

Improvement of CT-based treatment-planning models of abdominal targets using static exhale imaging

PURPOSE: CT-based models of the patient that do not account for the motion of ventilation may not accurately predict the shape and position of critical abdominal structures. Respiratory gating technology for imaging and treatment is not yet widely available. The purpose of the current study is to explore an intermediate step to improve the veracity of the patient model and reduce the treated volume by acquiring the CT data with the patients holding their breath at normal exhale. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The ventilatory time courses of diaphragm movement for 15 patients (with no special breathing instructions) were measured using digitized movies from the fluoroscope during simulation. A subsequent clinical protocol was developed for treatment based on exhale CT models. CT scans (typically 3.5-mm slice thickness) were acquired at normal exhale using a spiral scanner. The scan volume was divided into two to three segments, to allow the patient to breathe in between. Margins were placed about intrahepatic target volumes based on the ventilatory excursion inferior to the target, and on only the reproducibility of exhale position superior to the target. RESULTS: The average patient's diaphragm remained within 25% of the range of ventilatory excursion from the average exhale position for 42% of the typical breathing cycle, and within 25% of the range from the average inhale position for 15% of the cycle. The reproducibility of exhale position over multiple breathing cycles was 0.9 mm (2sigma), as opposed to 2.6 mm for inhale. Combining the variation of exhale position and the uncertainty in diaphragm position from CT slices led to typical margins of 10 mm superior to the target, and 19 mm inferior to the target, compared to margins of 19 mm in both directions under our prior protocol of margins based on free-breathing CT studies. For a typical intrahepatic target, these smaller volumes resulted in a 3.6% reduction in Veff for the liver. Analysis of portal films shows proper target coverage for patients treated based on exhale modeled plans. CONCLUSIONS: Modeling abdominal treatments at exhale, while not realizing all the gains of gated treatments, provides an immediate reduction in the volume of normal tissue treated, and improved reliability of patient data for NTCP modeling, when compared to current "free breathing" CT models of patients.     

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Senecio nevadensis

Residual tumor volume has been considered important in predicting survival following brain surgery. The purpose of this study was to develop a procedure for quantifying pre- and postsurgical brain tumor volumes that is less subjective than the traditional qualitative grading scale still used by surgeons and radiologists to assess extent of resection (such as gross total, subtotal, and partial resection). Pre- and postsurgical magnetic resonance (MR) imaging brain scans on GE Medical System optical disks were transferred to a Macintosh personal computer using a Pioneer optical disk drive subsystem, and the MedVision 1.41 computer software program was used to analyze regions of interest (ROIs) within them for computation of the volume of tumor tissue therein. Because this procedure puts the original MRI (or CT scan) data file for a patient directly into the personal computer, it bypasses the need for scanning and digitizing MR (or CT scan) film images. Between June 1993 and May 1996, pre- and postsurgical volumetric measurements were made in more than 1,000 brain tumor resection cases and 49 radiosurgery cases. The average intra-observer error was estimated to be 1.8%. This method should facilitate the examination of the effects of various therapies on extent of brain tumor resection. The method is fast, is more precise than intraoperative visual assessment of tumor removal or qualitative comparison of pre- and postoperative scans, and it allows the computation of pre- and postsurgical (three-dimensional) volumes of even irregularly shaped tumors.     

A model for diffusive transport through a spherical interface probed by pulsed-field gradient NMR

In biological systems, because of higher intracellular viscosity and/or the restriction of the diffusion space inside cells, the (apparent) diffusion coefficient of an intracellular species (e.g., water) is generally smaller than when it is in the extracellular medium. This difference affects the spin-echo signal attenuation in the pulsed field gradient NMR experiment and thus affords a means of separating the intracellular from the extracellular species, thereby providing a basis for studying transmembrane transport. Such experiments have commonly been analyzed using the macroscopic model of K?rger (see Adv. Magn. Reson. 21:1-89 (1988)). In our previous study, we considered a microscopic model of diffusive transport through a spherical interface using the short gradient pulse approximation (J. Magn. Reson. A114:39-46 (1995)). The spins in the external medium were modeled with the "partially absorbing wall" condition or as having a small but finite lifetime. In the present paper, we extend our treatment to the case in which there is no limitation upon the lifetime in either medium. We also consider a simple modification of K?rger's model that more properly accounts for the restricted intracellular diffusion. Importantly, it was found that the exact solution within the short gradient pulse approximation developed here and the modified K?rger model are in close agreement in the (experimentally relevant) long-time limit. The results of this study show that when there is no limitation upon the lifetime of the transported species in either phase, the spin-echo attenuation curve is very sensitive to transport.     

Inducible nitric oxide synthase induction in Thy 1 glomerulonephritis is complement and reactive oxygen species dependent

This study develops a three-dimensional finite element torso model with bidomain myocardium to simulate the transmembrane potential (TMP) of the heart induced by defibrillation fields. The inhomogeneities of the torso are modeled as eccentric spherical volumes with both the curvature and the rotation features of cardiac fibers incorporated in the myocardial region. The numerical computation of the finite element bidomain myocardial model is validated by a semianalytic solution. The simulations show that rotation of fiber orientation through the depth of the myocardial wall changes the pattern of polarization and decreases the amount of cardiac tissue polarized compared to the idealized analytic model with no fiber rotation incorporated. The TMP induced by transthoracic and transvenous defibrillation fields are calculated and visualized. The TMP is quantified by a continuous measure of the percentage of myocardial mass above a potential gradient threshold. Using this measure, the root mean square differences in TMP distribution produced by reversing the electrode polarity for anterior-posterior and transvenous electrode configurations are 13.6 and 28.6%, respectively. These results support the claim that a bidomain model of the heart predicts a change of defibrillation threshold with reversed electrode polarity.     

An ellipsoidal shell model for volume estimation of the right ventricle from magnetic resonance images

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: I developed a volume estimation technique for the crescentic volume of the right ventricle (RV) of the heart. A geometric model was desired to avoid the lengthy data collection and reduction required by Simpson's rule. METHODS: An ellipsoidal shell model was developed that requires only simple mathematics and that resembles the RV shape. RV cast volumes were obtained by water displacement and Simpson's rule and model-based calculations using magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. RESULTS: Model-based estimates correlated well with water displacement volumes (r = 0.924), with a slope not significantly different from unity. Simpson's rule results showed a higher correlation (r = 0.994), but it required longer acquisition and processing. Geometric irregularity in the RV shape required no modification in mathematics. CONCLUSION: The model provides reliable RV volume estimates from two MR image planes. The mathematics provides a simple approach to a relatively complex, crescentic shape. Short times for data acquisition and analysis suggest the potential for time savings during routine clinical measurements.     

When temporal terms belie conceptual order

We conceive of time as a sequential order of real-world events, one event following another from past to present to future. This conception colours the way we speak of time ("we look forward to the time") and, as we show here, the way we process written statements referring to the temporal order of events, in real time. Terms such as 'before' and 'after' give us the linguistic freedom to express a series of events (real or imaginary) in any order. However, sentences that present events out of chronological order require additional discourse-level computation. Here we examine how and when these computations are carried out by contrasting brain potentials across two sentence types that differ only in their initial word ('After' X, Y versus 'Before' X, Y). At sites on the left frontal scalp, the responses to 'before' and 'after' sentences diverge within 300 ms; the size of this difference increases over the course of the sentences and is correlated with individual working-memory spans. Thus, we show that there are immediate and lasting consequences for neural processing of the discourse implications of a single word on sentence comprehension.     

Mobile fluoroscopic open stereotaxy for MRI-negative angiographic microlesions

The approach to the deep-seated angiographic microlesion is often difficult, particularly when it is not demonstrated by computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We have developed a method to localize these lesions for open stereotactic surgery employing mobile fluoroscopy. Prior to craniotomy, the patient's head is fixed in a stereotactic frame in a position optimal for the routine microscopic surgery. Following the injection of contrast media, the location of the lesion is marked on the fluoroscope monitor. Under fluoroscopic control, the scalp is marked using radiopaque pointer on each side of the patient's head so that the scalp marks and the target lesion overlap each other on the fluoroscope monitor. Thus the imaginary line connecting these scalp marks passes through the lesion. An additional pair of scalp marks is obtained by changing the projection angle of the fluoroscope. By simple calculation, the coordinates of the lesion are obtained as the nearest point to these two imaginary lines, each of which connects a pair of scalp marks. After craniotomy, the lesion is approached using an open stereotactic technique. The first patient had an aneurysm 1.5 mm in diameter that arose from the feeder of the arteriovenous malformation. The second patient had a small residual nidus of arteriovenous malformation 1.5 cm in diameter in the deep frontal lobe, not recognizable by CT or MRI because of artifacts from a previous surgery. Both patients were successfully operated by employing the present method. This method requires only a conventional stereotactic frame and a mobile fluoroscope, and provides simple and reliable localization of the small lesions recognizable only by cerebral angiography.