Microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of Cr-Ru alloys

In an effort to enhance ductility and strength of Cr-base alloys, a series of Cr-Ru alloys with Ru contents ranging from 3 to 30 at. pct were made to study their microstructure evolution and mechanical properties. The microstructure of the alloys with 6 to 20 at. pct Ru showed signs of a eutectic structure. However, no corresponding eutectic reaction is indicated in the published Cr-Ru phase diagram. The yield strength of the Cr-Ru alloys increased with increasing Ru content at both room temperature and 1200 °C. The tensile ductility of Cr-3 at. pct Ru is about 1.5 pct at room temperature, while the alloys containing 6 at. pct or more Ru showed zero tensile elongation. The deformation mechanisms of the Cr-Ru alloys are discussed in terms of the microstructure and fracture behavior. This article is based on a presentation made in the symposium entitled “Beyond Nickel-Base Superalloys,” which took place March 14–18, 2004, at the TMS Spring meeting in Charlotte, NC, under the auspices of the SMD-Corrosion and Environmental Effects Committee, the SMD-High Temperature Alloys Committee, the SMD-Mechanical Behavior of Materials Committee, and the SMD-Refractory Metals Committee.     

Effect of Ti Addition and Microstructural Evolution on Toughening and Strengthening Behavior of as Cast or Annealed Nb–Si–Mo Based Hypoeutectic and Hypereutectic Alloys

Room temperature fracture toughness along with compressive deformation behavior at both room and high temperatures (900 °C, 1000 °C and 1100 °C) has been evaluated for ternary or quaternary hypoeutectic (Nb–12Si–5Mo and Nb–12Si–5Mo–20Ti) and hypereutectic (Nb–19Si–5Mo and Nb–19Si–5Mo–20Ti) Nb-silicide based intermetallic alloys to examine the effects of composition, microstructure, and annealing (100 hours at 1500 °C). On Ti-addition and annealing, the fracture toughness has increased by up to ~ 75 and ~ 63 pct, respectively with ~ 14 MPa√m being recorded for the annealed Nb–12Si–5Mo–20Ti alloy. Toughening is ascribed to formation of non-lamellar eutectic with coarse Nb_ss, which contributes to crack path tortuosity by bridging, arrest, branching and deflection of cracks. The room temperature compressive strengths are found as ~ 2200 to 2400 MPa for as-cast alloys, and ~ 1700 to 2000 MPa after annealing with the strength reduction being higher for the hypoeutectic compositions due to larger Nb_ss content. Further, the compressive ductility has varied from 5.7 to 6.5 pct. The fracture surfaces obtained from room temperature compression tests have revealed evidence of brittle failure with cleavage facets and river patterns in Nb_ss along with its decohesion at non-lamellar eutectic. The compressive yield stress decreases with increase in test temperature, with the hypoeutectic alloys exhibiting higher strength retention indicating the predominant role of solid solution strengthening of Nb_ss. The flow curves obtained from high temperature compression tests show initial work hardening, followed by a steady state regime indicating dynamic recovery involving the formation of low angle grain boundaries in the Nb_ss, as confirmed by electron backscattered diffraction of the annealed Nb–12Si–5Mo alloy compression tested at 1100 °C.

     

Effect of Coiling Temperature on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Hot-Rolled Ti–Nb Microalloyed Ultra High Strength Steel

A novel low carbon Ti–Nb microalloyed hot rolled steel with minimum yield strength of 700 MPa and good balance of stretch-flangeability and impact toughness has been developed by controlled thermo-mechanical processing following thin slab direct rolling route. In the present work, the effects of two coiling temperatures on the resulting microstructure, micro-texture and mechanical properties on this Ti–Nb microalloyed steel have been studied. It is observed that increase in coiling temperature from 520 to 580 °C significantly affects the mechanical properties. Higher dislocation density and increased precipitation along with slightly smaller grain size is observed for 580 °C coiling temperature resulting in about 50 MPa increase in yield and tensile strengths as compared to 520 °C coiling temperature.     

Examination of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) As Per Austempering Temperature and Time

Austempered ductile iron is a heat treated form of as-cast ductile iron. The heat treatment process-austempering, was developed with the intent of improving the strength and toughness of ferrous alloys. It offers a range of mechanical properties superior to those of other cast iron, and shows excellent economic competitiveness with steels and aluminum alloys. The main aim is to analyze the mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics of as-cast ductile iron austenitized at 900 °C for 90 min and afterward austempered over a range of temperatures to obtain distinctive microstructures. The samples were austempered for durations of 60, 90 and 180 min at each austempering temperature of 340, 360, 380, and 400 °C. The influence of these austempering temperatures and times on the microstructure and tensile properties were investigated at room temperature.     

Evolution of Intermetallics,Dispersoids, and Elevated Temperature Properties at Various Fe Contents in Al-Mn-Mg 3004 Alloys

Nowadays, great interests are rising on aluminum alloys for the applications at elevated temperature, driven by the automotive and aerospace industries requiring high strength, light weight, and low-cost engineering materials. As one of the most promising candidates, Al-Mn-Mg 3004 alloys have been found to possess considerably high mechanical properties and creep resistance at elevated temperature resulted from the precipitation of a large number of thermally stable dispersoids during heat treatment. In present work, the effect of Fe contents on the evolution of microstructure as well as high-temperature properties of 3004 alloys has been investigated. Results show that the dominant intermetallic changes from α-Al(MnFe)Si at 0.1 wt pct Fe to Al₆(MnFe) at both 0.3 and 0.6 wt pct Fe. In the Fe range of 0.1–0.6 wt pct studied, a significant improvement on mechanical properties at elevated temperature has been observed due to the precipitation of dispersoids, and the best combination of yield strength and creep resistance at 573 K (300 °C) is obtained in the 0.3 wt pct Fe alloy with the finest size and highest volume fraction of dispersoids. The superior properties obtained at 573 K (300 °C) make 3004 alloys more promising for high-temperature applications. The relationship between the Fe content and the dispersoid precipitation as well as the materials properties has been discussed.     

Effects of Indium Content on Microstructural,Mechanical Properties and Melting Temperature of SAC305 Solder Alloys

The present study investigated the effects of indium (In) addition on the microstructure, mechanical properties, and melting temperature of SAC305 solder alloys. The indium formed IMC phases of Ag₃(Sn,In) and Cu₆(Sn,In)₅ in the Sn-rich matrix that increased the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the hardness while the ductility (% EL) decreased for all In containing solder alloys. The UTS and hardness values increased from 29.21 to 33.84 MPa and from 13.91 to 17.33 HV. Principally, the In-containing solder alloys had higher UTS and hardness than the In-free solder alloy due to the strengthening effect of solid solution and secondary phase dispersion. The eutectic melting point decreased from 223.0°C for the SAC305 solder alloy to 219.5°C for the SAC305 alloy with 2.0 wt% In. The addition of In had little effect on the solidus temperatures. In contrast, the liquidus temperature decreased with increasing In content. The optimum concentration of 2.0 wt % In improved the microstructure, UTS, hardness, and eutectic temperature of the SAC305 solder alloys.     

Effect of Nitrogen Content on Grain Refinement and Mechanical Properties of a Reversion-Treated Ni-Free 18Cr-12Mn Austenitic Stainless Steel

Martensite reversion treatment was utilized to obtain ultrafine grain size in Fe-18Cr-12Mn-N stainless steels containing 0 to 0.44 wt pct N. This was achieved by cold rolling to 80 pct reduction followed by reversion annealing at temperatures between 973 K and 1173 K (700 °C and 900 °C) for 1 to 10⁴ seconds. The microstructural evolution was characterized using both transmission and scanning electron microscopes, and mechanical properties were evaluated using hardness and tensile tests. The steel without nitrogen had a duplex ferritic-austenitic structure and the grain size refinement remained inefficient. The finest austenitic microstructure was achieved in the steels with 0.25 and 0.36 wt pct N following annealing at 1173 K (900 °C) for 100 seconds, resulting in average grain sizes of about 0.240 ± 0.117 and 0.217 ± 0.73 µm, respectively. Nano-size Cr₂N precipitates observed in the microstructure were responsible for retarding the grain growth. The reversion mechanism was found to be diffusion controlled in the N-free steel and shear controlled in the N-containing steels. Due to a low fraction of strain-induced martensite in cold rolled condition, the 0.44 wt pct N steel displayed relatively non-uniform, micron-scale grain structure after the same reversion treatment, but it still exhibited superior mechanical properties with a yield strength of 1324 MPa, tensile strength of 1467 MPa, and total elongation of 17 pct. While the high yield strength can be attributed to strengthening by nitrogen alloying, dislocation hardening, and slight grain refinement, the moderate strain-induced martensitic transformation taking place during tensile straining was responsible for enhancement in tensile strength and elongation.     

Development of a High-Strength Ultrafine-Grained Ferritic Steel Nanocomposite

This article describes the microstructural and mechanical properties of 12YWT oxide-dispersion-strengthened (ODS)-ferritic steel nanocomposite. According to the annealing results obtained from X-ray diffraction line profile analysis on mechanically alloyed powders milled for 80 hours, the hot extrusion at 1123 K (850 °C) resulted in a nearly equiaxed ultrafine structure with an ultimate tensile strength of 1470 MPa, yield strength of 1390 MPa, and total elongation of 13 pct at room temperature comparable with high-strength 14YWT ODS steel. Maximum total elongation was found at 973 K (600 °C) where fractography of the tensile specimen showed a fully ductile dimple feature compared with the splitting cracks and very fine dimpled structure observed at room temperature. The presence of very small particles on the wall of dimples at 1073 K (800 °C) with nearly chemical composition of the matrix alloy was attributed to the activation of the boundaries decohesion mechanism as a result of diffusion of solute atoms. The results of Charpy impact test also indicated significant improvement of transition temperature with respect to predecessor 12YWT because of the decreased grain size and more homogeneity of grain size distribution. Hence, this alloy represented a good compromise between the strength and Charpy impact properties.     

High Temperature Strengthening in 12Cr-W-Mo Steels by Controlling the Formation of Delta Ferrite

Novel 12Cr-W-Mo-Co heat resistance steels (HRSs) with excellent mechanical properties have been developed for ultra-supercritical (USC) applications above 923 K (650 °C). The thermal analysis of the present steels indicates that the remelting temperature of secondary phases is increased by Co alloying, resulting in the improvement of microstructural stability. Delta ferrite in these HRSs is completely suppressed as the content of Co is increased up to 5 pct. The room temperature tensile strength (TS), yield strength (YS), and the elongation (EL) of the HRS with 5 pct Co reach 887.9, 652.6 MPa, and 21.07 pct, respectively. At 948 K (675 °C), the TS and YS of the HRS with 5 pct Co attain 360 and 290 MPa, respectively, which are higher than those of T/P122 steel by 27.4 and 22.1 pct, respectively. TEM study of the microstructure confirmed that the strengthening effects for these 12Cr-W-Mo-Co HRSs are attributed to the suppression of delta ferrite, the formation of fine martensitic laths with substructure, dislocation networks and walls, and the precipitation of second nanoscale phases.     

Effects of Thermalrate Treatment Technique on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Hypoeutectic Al–Si Alloys

In this study, effects of thermalrate treatment (TRT) technique on microstructure and mechanical properties of hypoeutectic Al–Si alloys with addition of Ti were studied. The superheating temperatures of the melt were ascertained based on the DSC result. The results show that when the alloy castings in sand mold were treated with TRT technique at the superheating temperature of 930 °C, α-Al changes into smaller equiaxial crystals from coarse dendrites, and hardness of the alloy increases by 12.7 %, compared to that of the alloy treated with conventional casting technique. In addition, the supercooling increases to 8.5 °C and the characteristic temperatures of eutectic solidification are all the lowest with TRT technique at the superheating temperature of 930 °C. As holding time increases at the pouring temperature of 730 °C in TRT at the superheating temperature of 930 °C, the effects on microstructure and mechanical properties of the alloy casting in sand mold decrease. TRT technique plays a limited role in the alloy casting in permanent mold.     

Effects of Tungsten Addition on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Microalloyed Forging Steels

In the current study, the effects of tungsten (W) addition on the microstructure, hardness, and room/low [223 K and 173 K (?50 °C and ?100 °C)] temperature tensile properties of microalloyed forging steels were systematically investigated. Four kinds of steel specimens were produced by varying the W additions (0, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 wt pct). The microstructure showed that the addition of W does not have any noticeable effect on the amount of precipitates. The precipitates in W-containing steels were all rich in W, and the W concentration in the precipitates increased with the increasing W content. The mean sizes of both austenite grains and precipitates decreased with the increasing W content. When the W content was equal to or less than 0.5 pct, the addition of W favored the formation of allotriomorphic ferrite, which subsequently promoted the development of acicular ferrite in the microalloyed forging steels. The results of mechanical tests indicated that W plays an important role in increasing the hardness and tensile strength. When the testing temperature was decreased, the tensile strength showed an increasing trend. Both the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength obeyed an Arrhenius type of relation with respect to temperature. When the temperature was decreased from 223 K to 173 K (from ?50 °C to ?100 °C), a ductile-to-brittle transition (DBT) of the specimen with 1 pct W occurred. The addition of W favored a higher DBT temperature. From the microstructural and mechanical test results, it is demonstrated that the addition of 0.5 pct W results in the best combination of excellent room/low-temperature tensile strength and ductility.     

Solidification behavior,microstructure and silicon twinning of Al-10Si alloys with ytterbium addition

The solidification behavior, micro structure and silicon twinning of Al-10 Si alloys with Yb addition were investigated by thermal analysis, optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction. scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The results indicate that the nucleation temperature, minimum temperature, and growth temperature of Al-lOSi alloys decrease with increasing Yb content. The cooling curves of the Yb-modified alloys exhibit marked recalescence. The recalescence of the modified alloy peaks at 2.3 ℃ when the Yb content is 0.7 wt%. The 3 D morphologies of eutectic Si in Yb-modified alloys change from a coarse plate-like structure to a honeycomb structure with many fine fibrous structures.The Al-Si-Yb intermetallic compound is observed in the 1.0 wt% Yb-modified alloy. Meanwhile, XRD analysis and TEM results indicate that the average twin spacing in the Yb-modified alloys is 18-46.2 nm.The average twin spacing of eutectic Si decreases with increasing Yb content. When the Yb content in the modified alloy is increased to 0.7 wt%, the average twin spacing value of eutectic Si reaches to 18 nm,which promotes the formation of twins and refinement of eutectic Si.     

On the Solidification of a H23 Tool Steel

The H23 tool steel contains high concentration of carbide forming elements, which affect the microstructure and mechanical properties. This present study described the microstructure and mechanical properties of the as cast H23 tool steel. The steel was prepared by vacuum induction melting. The microstructural investigation used XRD and electron microscope. The nano hardness and elastic moduli of matrix and carbide were also measured. The results show that the as cast microstructure consisted of ferrite matrix and M₆C, MC and M₂₃C₆ carbides. The eutectic M₆C carbides had two different morphologies owing to different growth mechanisms. There was agreement between the experimental results and the calculated solidification path for the H23 tool steel regarding the presence of carbides in the microstructure. The nanohardness and elastic moduli of ferrite matrix and M₆C carbides were respectively 4.2 ± 0.2 and 10.6 ± 1.2 and 198.3 ± 10.2 and 253.5 ± 11.7 GPa.     

Effect of Pulsed Magnetic Field on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Eutectic Al-Si Alloy

Pulsed magnetic field (PMF) processing has been employed for refining the microstructure of eutectic (Al-12.4Si) Al-Si alloy in the current study. The effect of PMF on microstructure and mechanical properties of eutectic Al-Si alloy was studied. The results show that the morphology of primary α-Al was refined from coarse columnar dendrites to fine equiaxed dendrites by PMF treatment. Fine short rod-like or rounded particle-like eutectic silicon was formed during solidification of eutectic Al-Si alloy treated by PMF. PMF treatment reduced the size of eutectic silicon from 49 to 2.3 μm in length, and the width from 3.1 to 0.6 μm. The aspect ratio of eutectic silicon was also reduced by PMF treatment from slightly less than 16 to slightly less than 4. The ultimate tensile strength and elongation of eutectic Al-Si alloy with PMF treatment at room temperature were about 201 MPa and 8.8 pct, respectively, which were increased by 47 and 73 pct, respectively, compared with the eutectic Al-Si alloy without PMF treatment.     

Solution Treatment Effects on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Al-(1 to 13 pct)Si-Mg Cast Alloys

The effects of solution treatment time and Si content and morphology on microstructures and mechanical properties of heat-treated Al-Si-Mg cast alloys were investigated systematically. Five alloys, with Si levels ranging from 1 to 13 pct, were tested in as-cast, T4, and T61 conditions. The eutectic Si was both unmodified and Sr-modified. Results show that the microstructures are affected significantly by alloy composition, eutectic Si morphology, and solution treatment time. Si content has significant effects on ultimate tensile strength (UTS), yield strength (YS), and elongation as well as a strong influence on solution treatment response. In T61 treatment with different solutionizing times, UTS and YS reach their maximum values in ~1 hour of solutionizing followed by a decrease, then a slight increase, and finally, a plateau close to the maximum level. Elongation of alloys with a high Si content, 7 pct and 13 pct, increases rapidly at solutionizing times of 1 to 2 hours then varies in a wide range, showing improvements in the 4 to 10 hours range. The data indicate that a solution treatment time of ~1 hour is sufficient to achieve maximum strength. The changes in mechanical properties were correlated to changes in microstructure evolution—Mg-Si precipitation, Si particle fragmentation, and microstructure homogenization. Empirical models uniquely relating Si content to UTS and YS are given for T61 heat-treated alloys.     

The Effect of Minor Addition of Ni on the Microstructural Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Suction Cast Al-0.14 at. pct Sc Binary Alloy

Aluminum scandium binary alloys represent a promising precipitation-hardening alloy system. However, the hardness of the binary alloys decreases with the rapid coarsening of Al₃Sc precipitate during high-temperature aging. In the current study, we report a new approach to compensate for the loss of mechanical properties by combining rapid solidification with very small ternary addition of transition metal Ni. This addition yields dispersion, and at a critical concentration improves the mechanical properties. We explore additions of a maximum of 0.06 at. pct of Nickel to a binary Al-0.14 at. pct Sc alloy, which yield nickel-rich dispersions. We report two kinds of biphasic dispersions containing AlNi₂Sc/Al₉Ni₂ and α-Al/Al₉Ni₂ phase combinations. The maximum improvement in mechanical properties occurs with the addition of 0.045 at. pct Ni with a yield strength of 239 ± 7 MPa for an aging treatment at 583 K (310 °C) for 15 hours.     

Microstructure and mechanical behavior of spray-deposited Al-Cu-Mg(-Ag-Mn) alloys

The effect of alloy composition on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of four spray-deposited Al-Cu-Mg(-Ag-Mn) alloys was investigated. Precipitation kinetics for the alloys was determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and artificial aging studies coupled with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. DSC/TEM analysis revealed that the spray-deposited alloys displayed similar precipitation behavior to that found in previously published studies on ingot alloys, with the Ag containing alloys exhibiting the presence of two peaks corresponding to precipitation of both Ω-Al₂Cu and θ′-Al₂Cu and the Ag-free alloy exhibiting only one peak for precipitation of θ′. The TEM analysis of each of the Ag-containing alloys revealed increasing amounts of Al₂₀Mn₃Cu₂ with increasing Mn. In the peak and over-aged conditions, Ag-containing alloys revealed the presence of Ω, with some precipitation of θ′ for alloys 248 and 251. Tensile tests on each of the alloys in the peak-aged and overaged (1000 hours at 160 °C) conditions were performed at both room and elevated temperatures. These tests revealed that the peak-aged alloys exhibited relatively high stability up to 160 °C, with greater reductions in strength being observed at 200 °C (especially for the high Mn, low Cu/Mg ratio (6.7) alloy 251). The greatest stability of tensile strength following extended exposure at 160 °C was exhibited by the high Cu/Mg ratio (14) alloy 248, which revealed reductions in yield strength of about 2.5 pct, with respect to the peak-aged condition, for the alloys tested at both room temperature and 160 °C.     

Microstructure of Precipitation Hardenable Powder Metallurgical Ni Alloys Containing 35 to 45 pct Cr and 3.5 to 6 pct Nb

Ni-based alloys with high Cr contents are not only known for their excellent high temperature and hot corrosion resistance, but are also known for poor mechanical properties and difficult workability. Powder metallurgical (PM) manufacturing of alloys may overcome several of the shortcomings encountered in materials manufacturing involving solidification. In the present work, six PM Ni-based alloys containing 35 to 45 wt pct Cr and 3.5 to 6 wt pct Nb were produced and compacted via hot isostatic pressing. Samples were heat treated for up to 1656 hours at either 923 K or 973 K (650 °C or 700 °C), and the microstructures and mechanical properties were quantified and compared to thermodynamic calculations. For the majority of the investigated alloys, the high Cr and Nb contents caused development of primary populations of globular α-Cr and δ (Ni₃Nb). Transmission electron microscopy of selected alloys confirmed the additional presence of metastable γ″ (Ni₃Nb). A co-dependent growth morphology was found, where the preferred growth direction of γ″, the {001} planes of γ-Ni, caused precipitates of both α-Cr and δ to appear in the form of mutually perpendicular oriented disks or plates. Solution heat treatment at 1373 K (1100 °C) followed by aging at 973 K (700 °C) produced a significant strength increase for all alloys, and an aged yield strength of 990 MPa combined with an elongation of 21 pct is documented for Ni 40 wt pct Cr 3.5 wt pct Nb.     

Effect of heat treatment on the microstructure,tensile properties,and fracture behavior of permanent mold Al-10 wt pct Si-0.6 wt pct Mg/SiC/10p composite castings

The present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of solution treatment (in the temperature range 520 °C to 550 °C) and artificial aging (in the temperature range 140 °C to 180 °C) on the variation in the microstructure, tensile properties, and fracture mechanisms of Al-10 wt pct Si-0.6 wt pct Mg/SiC/10_p composite castings. In the as-cast condition, the SiC particles are observed to act as nucleation sites for the eutectic Si particles. Increasing the solution temperature results in faster homogenization of the microstructure. Effect of solution temperature on tensile properties is evident only during the first 4 hours, after which hardly any difference is observed on increasing the solution temperature from 520 °C to 550 °C. The tensile properties vary significantly with aging time and temperature, with typical yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and percent elongation (EL) values of ∼300 MPa, ∼330 MPa, and ∼1.4 pct in the underaged condition, ∼330 MPa, ∼360 MPa, and ∼0.65 pct in the peakaged condition, and ∼323 MPa, ∼330 MPa, and ∼0.8 pct in the overaged condition. Prolonged solution treatment at 550 °C for 24 hours results in a slight improvement in the ductility of the aged test bars. The fracture surfaces exhibit a dimple morphology and cleavage of the SiC particles, the extent of SiC cracking increasing with increasing tensile strength and reaching a maximum in the overaged condition. Microvoids act as nucleation sites for the formation of secondary cracks that promote severe cracking of the SiC particles. A detailed discussion of the fracture mechanism is given.     

The effect of mischmetal addition on the structure and mechanical properties of a cast Al-7Si-0.3Mg alloy containing excess iron (up to 0.6 Pct)

The effect of Fe content (0.2 to 0.6 pct) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a cast Al-7Si-0.3Mg (LM 25/356) alloy has been investigated. Further, 1 pct mischmetal (MM) additions (a mixture of rare-earth (RE) elements) were made to these alloys, and their mechanical properties at room and at elevated temperatures (up to 200 °C) were evaluated. A structure-property correlation on this alloy was attempted using optical microstructure analysis, fractographs, X-ray diffraction, energy-dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDX), and quantitative metallography by image analysis. An increase in Fe content increased the volume percentage of Fe-bearing intermetallic compounds (β and π phases), contributing to the loweryield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), percentage elongation, and higher hardness. An addition of 1 pct MM to the alloys containing 0.2 and 0.6 pct Fe was found to refine the microstructure; modify the eutectic silicon and La, Ce, and Nd present in the MM; form different intermetallic compounds with Al, Si, Fe, and Mg; and improve the mechanical properties of the alloys both at room and elevated temperatures.