Behavioral approaches to the assessment of attention in animals

Increasing awareness that disorders of attention may underlie cognitive dysfunctions associated with intoxication and neurodegenerative disease has stimulated research into the neural bases of attention. Because attention comprises a constellation of hypothetical cognitive processes, it can only be inferred from behavior, of either human or non-human subjects, under appropriate experimental conditions. Many behavioral procedures have been proposed for modeling attention in animals, but not all of these procedures have been systematically associated with specific attentional processes. This review endeavors to evaluate critically the construct validity of these procedures (i.e., to determine the degree to which a given procedure assesses a particular process) and to suggest experiments to improve the conceptual links between these procedures and the processes they purport to assess. Five categories of processes have been identified from the animal literature: orienting, expectancy, stimulus differentiation (including stimulus salience, discrimination of a critical stimulus from its context, and selection among stimuli), sustained attention, and parallel processing. The review discusses the strengths and weaknesses of specific behavioral procedures for assessing these categories of attentional processes and, given the conceptual uncertainties involved, it attempts to summarize the present state of knowledge of the pharmacology and neurobiology of attention.     

What starts an internal clock?

Five experiments with 52 male Charles River CD rats investigated under what conditions a stimulus is timed by the internal clock used in time-discrimination procedures. In Exps I–IV, Ss were trained to time one stimulus (e.g., light) and then tested as to whether they timed a stimulus from another modality (e.g., sound). The 2nd stimulus was treated in 3 ways: exposed (presented alone), paired with food, and extinguished. Exps I and II used the peak procedure, similar to a discrete-trial FI schedule, and paired the treated stimulus with food using instrumental training; Exps III and IV used a psychophysical choice procedure and paired the treated stimulus with food using classical conditioning. All 4 experiments found that there was cross-modal transfer of the time discrimination after pairing but not after exposure or extinction. This suggests that Ss' internal clock timed the treated stimulus after pairing but not after exposure or extinction. Exp V suggested that the decline of responding observed in extinction was not due to changes in timing. Thus, the internal clock apparently times stimuli with signal value (associative strength) and does not time stimuli without signal value. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Of needles and skinned knees: Children's coping with medical procedures and minor injuries for self and other.

Children participated in four role-plays designed to assess what the children themselves would do and what they would suggest a friend should do when encountering a medical procedure and a minor injury. Open-ended responses were coded into an empirically derived continuum suggested by past research. Similar responses were given to cope with medical procedures and injuries. However, children suggested more reactive coping strategies (e.g., cry, pull away) for themselves and more proactive responses (e.g., think of something fun, take deep breaths) for friends. This finding questions the assumption that children choose the most effective coping strategy in their repertoire when they themselves confront an aversive stimulus, suggesting that preparation for invasive procedures should include motivational components. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clonidine-induced antagonism of norepinephrine modulates the attentional processes involved in peak-interval timing.

The effects of the α2-agonist clonidine and the α2-antagonist idazoxan were studied with emphasis on the attentional mechanisms subserving interval-timing behavior. Administration of clonidine (0.015 mg/kg IP) to rats trained on a 20-s peak-interval (Pl) timing procedure caused a rightward shift in peak functions, whereas idazoxan (0.15 mg/kg IP) caused a leftward shift. Rats were also trained on 10-s and 30-s baseline Pl timing procedures in combination with the prior-entry and prior-entry reversal versions of this task that produced leftward shifts and rightward shifts relative to baseline training, respectively. Clonidine (0.075 mg/kg IP) produced a rightward shift in peak functions for all of these behavioral procedures. Taken together, thcsc horizontal shifts in the peak functions indicate a decrease (leftward shift) or an increase (rightward shift) in the latency to start the internal clock that is influenced both by the attentional demands of the task and the effective level of brain norepinephrine. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of classical conditioning on an internal clock.

Six experiments with 53 male Charles River rats used a psychophysical choice procedure to study the internal clock used to discriminate duration and to investigate whether this clock is sensitive to the signal value (associative strength) of a stimulus. The experiments involved 2 types of trials: On choice trials, a stimulus lasted a short (e.g., 3-sec) or long (e.g., 12-sec) duration; Ss then chose between 2 levers. The rewarded choice depended on the duration of the stimulus. On conditioning trials, the stimulus used on choice trials was presented, but it ended without food (extinction trials) or with food (pairing trials) regardless of what the S did. The main measure of performance was short bias, defined as accuracy with the short stimulus without a corresponding accuracy with the long stimulus. Exp I showed that extinction trials increased short bias relative to training without conditioning trials or to training with pairing trials. Exps II–VI tested explanations of these results. The same results were found when extinction trials were the same duration as the short stimulus (Exp II), when extinction trials were a random duration (Exp V), and when the signal value of the CS was changed in another way (Exp VI). The effect of conditioning trials was modality specific (Exps III and IV). It is concluded that, of the explanations considered, the most valid is that changing the signal value of a stimulus changes how the clock times the stimulus. Reducing signal value reduces the measured duration. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing pre-service teachers' training in empirically-validated behavioral instruction practices.

Although many behaviorally-based instructional practices have been shown empirically to promote student achievement, it is unknown to what extent teachers receive adequate training in these methods. This study surveyed master's-level elementary, secondary, and special education students about their coursework and applied training in 25 behavioral instruction practices and principles (e.g., prompting, graphing progress, reinforcement). A total of 110 pre-service teachers participated, representing six different colleges and universities located in the Northeast. Respondents generally reported receiving very little training in behavioral instruction practices and received the least amount of training in academic assessment strategies and instructional programs (e.g., Curriculum-Based Assessment, Direct Instruction). Special education students reported significantly more training in academic assessment than elementary or secondary education students. Implications for school consultation practices, in-service teacher training, and students' academic progress are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selecting behavioral marital interventions: An algorithm for matching couples and treatments.

Presents an algorithm, based on 12 questions, for matching couples and marital interventions. The algorithm can be used to determine the appropriateness of divorce counseling, nonmarital treatments, couples crisis intervention, structured behavior exchange, communication skills training, problem-solving training, marital rule clarification/restructuring, and specific treatment procedures (e.g., sex therapy). (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Primary and secondary control among children undergoing medical procedures: Adjustment as a function of coping style.

The literature suggests that optimal adjustment to relatively uncontrollable stressors may require adjusting oneself to the stressors rather than trying to alter them. This possibility was explored for low-controllability stressors (e.g., painful medical procedures) associated with leukemia. Children's reports of coping strategies and goals were classified as primary control coping (attempts to alter objective conditions), secondary control coping (attempts to adjust oneself to objective conditions), or relinquished control (no attempt to cope). Secondary control coping was positively associated with (1) general behavioral adjustment assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist and (2) illness specific adjustment assessed by children's own distress ratings and by behavioral observations during painful procedures. All significant group differences showed better adjustment among secondary control children than among the primary or relinquished groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recency-to-primacy shift in cue competition.

Three experiments were conducted using a lick-suppression preparation with rats to determine whether temporal and physical context shifts modulate the effectiveness of 2 sequentially trained blocking stimuli. Experiment 1 ascertained that it is possible to obtain blocking by conditioning rats to react to a target cue using 2 different blocking cues, each trained with a single-phase blocking paradigm. Experiment 2 showed that the more recently trained blocking stimulus was more effective (i.e., showed a recency effect) when testing was conducted immediately after training, but a long retention interval attenuated blocking by the most recently trained blocking stimulus and increased blocking by the initially trained blocking stimulus (i.e., a recency-to-primacy shift). This shift from recency to primacy affected in Experiment 2 by varying the retention interval was replicated in Experiment 3 by changing the physical context between training and testing. Taken together, the results indicate that the effectiveness of sequentially trained competing stimuli follows the same recency-to-primacy shift rule that is seen in traditional interference phenomena. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Challenging the notion of a thematic preference in young children.

Many researchers have argued that early cognitive development is characterized by a conceptual preference for thematic over taxonomic relations. However, more recent research indicates that infants and toddlers may not favor thematic relations. To resolve this discrepancy, the conceptual preferences of children ranging from 2 to 4 years of age were examined, using a forced-choice task including a target (e.g., a carrot), a thematic alternative (e.g., a rabbit), and a taxonomic alternative (e.g., a tomato). The effects of age, experimenter's instructions, hierarchical level (basic vs. superordinate), and stimulus medium (pictures vs. objects) were examined systematically. Children revealed no pervasive preference for either thematic or taxonomic relations. This challenges the notion of a developmental shift in conceptual preferences and suggests a more continuous trajectory in early conceptual development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mycotic sinusitis

Previous drug discrimination studies have elucidated the importance of gamma-aminobutyric acidA (GABAA), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate, and serotonin (5-HT) receptor systems in mediating the discriminative stimulus effects of ethanol. The present study used a three-choice operant drug discrimination procedure in an attempt to determine if salient GABAergic effects could be separated from other stimulus effects of 2.0 g/kg ethanol. Adult male Long-Evans rats (n = 7) were trained to discriminate pentobarbital (10.0 mg/kg; intragastrically (i.g.) from ethanol (2.0 g/kg; i.g.) from water (4.7 ml; i.g.) using food reinforcement. Stimulus substitution tests were conducted following the administration of allopregnanolone (1.0-17.0 mg/kg; intraperitoneally (i.p.)), diazepam (0.1-7.3 mg/kg; i.p.), midazolam (0.0056-17.0 mg/kg; i.p.), dizocilpine (0.01-0.56 mg/kg; i.p.), phencyclidine (1.0-5.6 mg/kg; i.p.), CGS 12066B (3-30 mg/kg; i.p.), RU 24969 (0.1-5.6 mg/kg; i.p.) and morphine (1 or 3.0 mg/kg; i.p.). Within the group, allopregnanolone and midazolam completely substituted (> 80%), and diazepam partly substituted (67%) for the discriminative stimulus effects of pentobarbital. Dizocilpine and phencyclidine partly substituted (58 and 57%, respectively) for ethanol without substantial pentobarbital-appropriate responding. RU 24969, CGS 12066B and morphine did not result in complete substitution for either ethanol or pentobarbital, although RU 24969 resulted in partial (68%) pentobarbital substitution. The ability to train the present three-choice discrimination in rats indicates that the discriminative stimulus effects of 10.0 mg/kg pentobarbital were separable from those of 2.0 g/kg ethanol. The results suggest that the pharmacological effects of ethanol, which can control behavior, may seemingly be modified by training conditions (two-versus three-choice discrimination procedures), to the extent that a receptor system prominently linked to the behavioral activity of ethanol (i.e. GABAA) appears no longer to be involved in the interoceptive effects of the drug.     

Behavior instrumentation and social technology.

Analyzes the influences of electromechanical technology on traditional concerns of social and clinical psychology in terms of principles of behavior control (e.g., negative or positive reinforcement, information feedback, and stimulus discrimination), i.e., traffic lights, clocks, behavioral prosthetics, etc. A discipline of "psychotechnology" is advocated, and ethical and professional issues relative to such a development are discussed. (43 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral Changes Induced in Rats by Exposure to Trimethylthiazoline, a Component of Fox Odor.

Trimethylthiazoline (TMT), a component of fox feces, has been used in various studies as a natural predator stimulus to induce autonomic and behavioral signs of fear (e.g., higher levels of stress hormones, freezing, and risk assessment). The present study investigated whether 2 further behavioral signs of fear are induced in rats by TMT exposure: potentiation of the acoustic startle response and inhibition of appetitive behavior. In addition, the authors tested the rats for dose dependency of TMT-induced freezing behavior. The study confirmed that behavioral changes observed during TMT exposure are caused by TMT-induced fear and are dose dependent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in preschool children's conceptual strategies when thinking about animate entities and artifacts.

Two-, 3-, and 4-year-old children viewed 10 stimulus sets. Each set contained a sample picture (e.g., a dog), a basic-level taxonomic match (e.g., another dog), a thematic match (e.g., a bone), and an irrelevant match (e.g., a pen). The children were asked to choose a match that "goes with" each sample. Sample pictures were either animate entities or artifacts. The children's choice behavior indicated that a shift occurs between 3 and 4 years of age from a taxonomic bias to a thematic bias and that, at both ages, animate sample stimuli enhance the children's tendency to adopt thematic conceptual strategies. These data are consistent with recent suggestions that thematic thinking presupposes basic-level taxonomic thinking during early conceptual development and that this developmental progression occurs more rapidly in some domains of knowledge than in others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The time it takes elderly and young individuals to draw pictures and write words.

20 elderly and 20 young Ss drew pictures or wrote words for picture or word stimuli. Elderly Ss had slower response initiation than young Ss, especially when drawing. Beyond this, both age groups processed picture and word stimuli similarly. Elderly and young Ss exhibited equivalent latency increases for cross-modality trials (e.g., draw a picture given a word) over within-modality trials (e.g., draw a picture given a picture), regardless of stimulus or task modality. Strong support was found for a mathematical model of these results, which assumes age-related additive slowing for input and output subprocesses but age invariance for a cross-modality transfer subprocess. However, regressing elderly on young whole-condition latencies indicated general, multiplicative slowing: a discrepancy that questions the utility of the global Brinley plot procedure in revealing the nature of age-related slowing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physiological memory in primary auditory cortex: characteristics and mechanisms

"Physiological memory" is enduring neuronal change sufficiently specific to represent learned information. It transcends both sensory traces that are detailed but transient and long-term physiological plasticities that are insufficiently specific to actually represent cardinal details of an experience. The specificity of most physiological plasticities has not been comprehensively studied. We adopted receptive field analysis from sensory physiology to seek physiological memory in the primary auditory cortex of adult guinea pigs. Receptive fields for acoustic frequency were determined before and at various retention intervals after a learning experience, typified by single-tone delay classical conditioning, e.g., 30 trials of tone-shock pairing. Subjects rapidly (5-10 trials) acquire behavioral fear conditioned responses, indexing acquisition of an association between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimuli. Such stimulus-stimulus association produces receptive field plasticity in which responses to the conditioned stimulus frequency are increased in contrast to responses to other frequencies which are decreased, resulting in a shift of tuning toward or to the frequency of the conditioned stimulus. This receptive field plasticity is associative, highly specific, acquired within a few trials, and retained indefinitely (tested to 8 weeks). It thus meets criteria for "physiological memory." The acquired importance of the conditioned stimulus is thought to be represented by the increase in tuning to this stimulus during learning, both within cells and across the primary auditory cortex. Further, receptive field plasticity develops in several tasks, one-tone and two-tone discriminative classical and instrumental conditioning (habituation produces a frequency-specific decrease in the receptive field), suggesting it as a general process for representing the acquired meaning of a signal stimulus. We have proposed a two-stage model involving convergence of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli in the magnocellular medial geniculate of the thalamus followed by activation of the nucleus basalis, which in turn releases acetylcholine that engages muscarinic receptors in the auditory cortex. This model is supported by several recent findings. For example, tone paired with NB stimulation induces associative, specific receptive field plasticity of at least a 24-h duration. We propose that physiological memory in auditory cortex is not "procedural" memory, i.e., is not tied to any behavioral conditioned response, but can be used flexibly.     

Delayed development of fear-potentiated startle in rats.

Examined the developmental emergence of fear-potentiated startle in rats ranging in age from 16 to 75 days. In Exp 1, a pure tone served as the CS and an acoustic startle pulse served as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) for fear conditioning. Fear-potentiated startle by the tone CS was observed in rats 23 days of age and older but not in rats 16 days of age. In Exp 2, a light served as the CS. Rats 30 days of age and older showed fear-potentiated startle, whereas 23-day-old rats did not. The final experiment demonstrated that another behavioral index of fear, stimulus-elicited freezing, was observed earlier in development than fear-potentiated startle, confirming the effectiveness of the training procedure for conditioning fear. Results suggest that fear-potentiated startle is a relatively late-emerging response system, parallelling the development of conditioned autonomic changes (e.g., heart rate) rather than that of freezing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison between behavioral replication training and sensitivity training approaches to heterosexual dating anxiety.

Compared a behavioral replication program and a sensitivity training program with regard to treatment efficiency for heterosexual dating anxiety in 29 undergraduates. No significant differences were found between the 2 programs on measures of general social anxiety (e.g., State-Trait Anxiety Inventory A-State scale). However, the behavioral program demonstrated, in general, a significant treatment efficiency on more specific measures of heterosexual dating anxiety, including both behavioral ratings and self-report responses to a simulated dating interaction and a measure of transfer. "Tailoring" of treatment programs to the specific target problems of the treatment population and the inclusion of procedures to promote transfer are suggested. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training the Trainee as Well as the Trainer: Lessons to be Learned From Clinical Psychology.

The training literature in industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology has benefited from empirical research in experimental psychology on such subject matter as massed vs distributive practice, knowledge of results (KOR), and the transfer of learning from the training setting to the workplace. The purpose of the present paper is to argue that further advances in the field of training will occur when there is a shift in research emphasis from reliance on findings from experimental psychology to building on extant training techniques in clinical psychology, particularly cognitive behavioral psychology. Further advances in the field of training may also occur when there is a shift in emphasis from the recipient of training, namely, the trainee, to the administrator of training, namely the trainer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schoolwide social skills training: Providing preventive services to students at-risk.

Describes a schoolwide social skills assessment and training model including a 2-gate student identification procedure (i.e., in-class social skills training for all students and small group intensive training for at-risk target students). The model is directed at reducing future serious problems by addressing identified difficulties early (i.e., through secondary prevention procedures). Specific and model objectives are to (1) use a comprehensive, multigate procedure to identify students at risk; (2) implement schoolwide training procedures to teach a number of important prosocial skills identified by teachers; (3) treat a subgroup of target Ss considered at highest risk for developing pervasive social problems; and (4) implement procedures to encourage the transfer and generalization of all students' skills across untrained stimuli, settings, and situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)