Anger, disgust, and the negative aesthetic emotions: Expanding an appraisal model of aesthetic experience.

Negative aesthetic emotions, such as disgust and anger, are central to understanding why people reject, deface, and censor art. Psychological theories of aesthetic preferences have little to say about negative aesthetic emotions, however, and the major theories associated with Berlyne and Martindale cannot in principle explain emotions like anger and disgust. The present research uses a recent appraisal model of aesthetic emotions to illuminate negative responses to art. People viewed a set of pictures, which included offensive and controversial works. The predictions were based on the appraisal profiles of anger and disgust. As expected, anger was associated with appraising a picture as incongruent with one's values and as intentionally offensive, and disgust was associated with appraising a picture as incongruent with one's values and as unpleasant. Implications for competing theories of aesthetic emotions are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Art and Visual Perception.

Reviews the book "Art and visual perception," by Rudolph Arnheim (see record 1955-03680-000). In reading this book, one realizes why more psychologists have not been concerned with art. Art is a technical specialty in its own right and one must be expert both in psychology and in either creative art or the history of art to write on art. Arnheim's book brings the scientific knowledge of a trained psychologist to bear on the fundamental problems of visual art as it has developed through the ages. The discussion is always with reference to concrete works of art. Many original drawings, diagrams, and figures illustrate basic principles and important points. The writing is superb. The book is full of penetrating insights into questions of art and also into many problems of concern to the psychologist. Fundamentally this book is an argument against the usual art historian's approach, so well described by Arnheim as the purely subjective point of view, that what a person sees in a work of art "depends entirely on who he is, what he is interested in, what he has experienced in the past, and how he chooses to direct his attention". A book which reflects so well the author's urbanity, catholicity, and keenness of mind, as well as his technical grasp of the scientific and the artistic, is no small achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional responses to art: From collation and arousal to cognition and emotion.

The study of emotional responses to art has remained curiously detached from the psychology of emotions. Historically, the leading tradition has been Daniel Berlyne's psychobiological model, embodied by the "new experimental aesthetics" movement of the 1970s. That theory explained hedonic qualities of art by referring to arousal-modifying "collative properties" of art, such as complexity, novelty, uncertainty, and conflict. Berlyne's influence on the experimental study of aesthetics has been enormous, largely for the better but also for the worse. Berlyne's suspicion of cognitive psychology led to an unproductive perseveration on arousal as the mechanism of "aesthetic responses." This article describes how appraisal theories of emotion inform the study of aesthetics. Appraisal theories make new predictions about emotional responses to art, expand the domain of aesthetic emotions beyond positive emotions such as interest and enjoyment, inform other theories (e.g., prototypicality models), and reinterpret past findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Advances in intrinsic motivation and aesthetics.

Reviews the book, Advances in Intrinsic Motivation and Aesthetics edited by Hy I. Day (1981). This collection of 20 original contributions is a fitting tribute to the late Daniel E. Berlyne. The breadth of topics covered gives one some idea of the scope of Berlyne's impact. This edited volume also guides the reader to retrace the path that bears Berlyne's footprints. It turns out to be an intrinsically motivating and rewarding journey. One is often surprised by unexpected turns, aroused by changing terrains, and curious about what lies ahead, but all the time one senses where Berlyne is heading. The destination is always clearly defined, even if the exploration seems diverse and undirected. The traveller may have the feeling of going through a complex maze of winding paths and conflicting signs, but there is a hidden pattern of simplicity detectable to an inquisitive mind. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mundane aesthetics.

With the publication of Zür experimentalen ?sthetik (1871) and Vorschule der ?sthetik (1876), Fechner laid the foundations for a new field termed experimental aesthetics, and provided three methods for empirical research. Of these, the method of choice has dominated subsequent research. It is argued that this method, in combination with a narrow, post-Baumgarten definition of aesthetics as pertaining mainly to the experience of art, has not served aesthetics well. In so doing it has overlooked the vast corpus of everyday objects for which people engage in aesthetic choice. Termed mundane aesthetics, this represents the low end, design, as distinct from the high end, art. The aesthetics of the mundane represents everyday reality, far removed from the rarefied pursuit of art. A study is reported into that most mundane and ubiquitous activity, selecting a paint color for the home. It eschews the laboratory and, instead, uses a retrospective method supported by qualitative data analysis (NVivo). The results indicate that aesthetic choice involves processes that are far from uniform, far from instantaneous (cf. laboratory studies), and that employ both internal and external aids reflecting cognitive, emotional, and social considerations. Selecting a wall color emerges as a surprisingly sophisticated process and, on the basis of the present study, one that women appear better equipped to perform than men. A parallel is drawn with the domain of decision research, particularly naturalistic decision-making. Mundane aesthetics involves a decision process, and not simply an affective choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Letter to the Editor": Reply.

Responds to the comments by D. E. Berlyne (see record 2007-02140-027) on the original article by P. O. Davidson (see record 2007-02137-003) on "Graduate training and research funding for clinical psychology in Canada." Dr. Berlyne's general point is well taken. The intention of Dr. Davidson was to provoke not to offend and he apparently missed the 'fine line distinction' in the paragraph to which Dr. Berlyne refers. The word 'hobby' need not be considered as pejorative term in the 'hobby-horse' sense. In using this term Davidson was indicating that while studies ABOUT the rat may be a favorite (and valuable) research subject for some researchers he was not prepared to assume that it is the main business of psychology. Davidson agrees completely with Dr. Berlyne that much of this research can be justified as both necessary and valuable but given our limited research resources these days and increasing governmental involvement in directions of research spending, such justification must be given and too often is not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Who's afraid of John B. Watson? Comments on: Behavior: An introduction to comparative psychology.

Reviews the book, Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology by John B. Watson (Introduction by R. J. Herrnstein) (see record 1967-08039-000). This book, a reprint of the 1914 volume which was Watson's first book, disinters again from its mouldy wrappings the often harrassed spectre of John B. Watson's place in the history of North American psychology. Was he, as Gustav Bergmann (1956) has suggested, second only to Freud as "the most important figure in the history of psychological thought during the first half of the century?" Or was A. A. Roback (1937, 1964) closer to the truth in dismissing Watsonian Behaviorism as a "rah-rah technique" which "made a big noise" which was "not substantiated by deeds?" Or was Watson, as other writers have suggested, simply a footnote to Functionalism? Herrnstein, in his introduction, discusses Watson as the heir of Darwin, Sechenov, and Pavlov, and as the progenitor of Tolman, Hull, and Skinner. The fact of the matter is that Watson's contributions to psychology, however they may be assessed, were not in the field of animal behavior but in the field of methodology. Thorndike's Law of Effect continued to overshadow Watson's frequency principle in learning, Pavlov did more with the reflex in terms of both research and theory, and Lashley began a tradition of revolutionary explorations of the animal nervous system. It is not without good reason that Boring (1950) discusses Watson in a section on Behaviorism '(with the ism)" rather than in sections on Animal Psychology where Romanes, Loeb, Morgan, and Yerkes are included. Indeed, it is to the "history and systems" books one must turn to find consistent reference to Behavior. It would appear that if Behavior is, in fact, a classic, it is a classic in the field of psychological theory and methodology, not in the field of animal behavior or comparative psychology. Perhaps it was this point which Herrnstein was making when he began the first sentence of his introduction with the words, "To find out what behaviorism was, consult this book," rather than with the words, "To find out what comparative psychology was, consult this book." Nevertheless, whether your interest is behaviorism, comparative psychology, or the history and growth of psychological thinking in North America, this book is worth consulting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pupillary responses in art appreciation: Effects of aesthetic emotions.

The authors examined effects of aesthetic emotions in art appreciation. Subjects were presented three groups of slides of cubistic paintings that differed in their processing fluency. In an explicit classification procedure, subjects were asked to indicate by button press the moment when they recognized any depicted object in the painting. The time to recognize a depicted object was shortest for high processing fluency paintings, which were also rated higher in their preference. This is in accordance with the “hedonic fluency model” that predicts higher processing fluency being associated with positive aesthetic emotions in art appreciation (Reber, Schwartz, & Winkielman, 2004). In addition, higher processing fluency was associated with increased pupil dilations following the point of explicit classification. The finding of higher pupil dilation associated with easy-to-process stimuli is interpreted as reflecting aspects of aesthetic emotions that follow explicit classification of art stimuli as proposed in the “model of aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic judgments” (Leder, Belke, Oeberst, & Augustin, 2004). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Joachim Friedrich Wohlwill (1928–1987).

Joachim (Jack) F. Wohlwill was a well known developmental psychologist who spent some time at Clark University as director of its graduate program in developmental psychology. Jack's concern with the environment became manifest in 1963 when he accepted an invitation to spend the year as a Fellow in the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. Jack's contributions to the study of environment and behavior are extensive, varied, and creative. With Irwin Airman and others, he edited books covering the environment in relation to children, elderly people, culture, the social sciences, and transportation behavior, as well as the impact of the natural environment on behavior. Jack's concern for developmental psychology remained as a potent force. In 1979, while still at Pennsylvania State, he became Professor of Human Development in the Programs on Individual and Family Studies and Man-Environment Relations. Related to his interests in developmental and environmental psychology was Jack's long-standing interest in the psychology of the arts and in the work of Daniel Berlyne on exploration, curiosity, and affective arousal, along with their roles in both the creation of and response to artistic stimuli. This interest in the psychology of the arts brought him back in formal contact with Clark University's Heinz Werner Institute for Developmental Analysis in 1986. Here he helped initiate a conference on "Development and the Arts," in which he was scheduled to present his work on "Effects of Media on the Creativity of Children's Art." Sadly for all, Jack died on July 10, 1987, in State College, just 10 weeks prior to the Clark conference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Psychotherapists in clinical practice: Cognitive and behavioral perspectives.

Reviews the book, Psychotherapists in clinical practice: Cognitive and behavioral perspectives by Neil S. Jacobson (see record 1987-98176-000). Behavior therapy is known for, indeed in some circles notorious for, its commitment to procedural specificity. It is thus ironic how little has been written about the concrete, session-to-session work of outpatient behavior therapists. Neil Jacobson, a behavioral marital therapist and a veteran editor of clinical compendiums, has stepped into the breach with this most recent volume. As he notes in his introduction, "The impetus for this book is the belief that there is not enough material in behavior therapy literature to support a practicing clinician working in settings where outpatients must be treated." (p. 4). It is Jacobson's intent to help remedy this deficit. Altogether, Jacobson's latest collection is a worthwhile addition to any clinician's library, whether or not the practictioner is of a behavioral bent. The usefulness of the contributions may vary, but the volume as a whole is likely to serve as a valuable reference for the outpatient therapist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Looking past pleasure: Anger, confusion, disgust, pride, surprise, and other unusual aesthetic emotions.

Psychological aesthetics, for the most part, is concerned with people's feelings of pleasure in response to art. The study of mild positive feelings will always be important to psychological aesthetics, but the range of aesthetic feelings is much wider than liking, preference, and pleasure. This article provides an overview of some unusual aesthetic emotions: knowledge emotions (interest, confusion, and surprise), hostile emotions (anger, disgust, and contempt), and self-conscious emotions (pride, shame, and embarrassment). Appraisal theories of emotion can describe how these emotions differ and when they come about. An expanded view of aesthetic experience creates intriguing and fertile directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Berlyne as a disinterested critic: A colleague's account of some academic interactions.

This paper presents a personal account of an aspect of Berlyne's contribution that is not readily apparent in his many publications: his association with colleagues at the University of Toronto. Berlyne's characteristic style of academic interaction with his colleagues is designated "disinterested criticism". Three examples of interactions are given, dealing with definitional distinctions, the uncovering of unnecessary assumptions, and conflict between applied and basic research goals. In all three cases the academic interaction appeared to have the same, sequential components: (1) the argument, (2) resistance, and (3) finally, reluctant acceptance of the validity of the issue raised by Berlyne. On the basis of these academic interactions, it is concluded that Berlyne, as an academic colleague, functioned in the Socratic rather than the Protagorean or Sophistic mode, inasmuch as he was more interested in considering issues than in manipulating minds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Picasso's Guernica: The genesis of a painting.

Reviews the book, Picasso's Guernica: The genesis of a painting by Rudolf Arnheim (2006). Guernica, one of the most famous and reproduced paintings of the 20th century, was Pablo Picasso's answer to a commission for the 1937 Paris World's Fair, by the Spanish government in exile. In this book, Rudolf Arnheim, distinguished art historian and Gestalt psychologist, examines the artist's preliminary studies and states of the mural in progress. Picasso numbered and dated his studies, representing "the first time in recorded history an artist has created and carefully catalogued and preserved such extensive series of preparations" (p. 14). From those data Arnheim chronicles the progression of Picasso's "visual thinking"--his stops and starts; reversals and refinements; his attention now to detail, now to the gestalt--as he moved toward the final realization of his assignment to commemorate '...the drama of his fatherland ravished by the fascists" (p. 18). This book is packed with rich insights on art in the context of world events, on the meaning of abstraction in painting, on the artist's oeuvre, and on Picasso the man. Significantly, for the psychology of the creative process, Arnheim advances the notion of artistic creativity as fundamentally a process of problem solving, with Picasso's Guernica as a striking case study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Drama therapy and storymaking in special education.

Reviews the book, Drama therapy and storymaking in special education by Paula Crimmens (2006). This book is a resource for therapists, teachers, and paraprofessionals--anyone working with those children deemed to have "special needs." The book is divided into short chapters that are written in an informal, first person narrative style. The bulk of the book consists of chapters that focus on a particular theme or behavior, such as "helping others," "dealing with change," and "trickery and stealing." For each of these focus areas, Crimmens includes the texts of three or four relevant stories from a wide variety of cultures, and then "ideas for the story," which include thematically related games, visual art, character creation, and segments of simple dramatization. The book provides specific source material and activities that the author has successfully utilized in classroom settings. Both the stories and drama exercises that follow them address issues that are often more pronounced in children with various special needs. Although not earth shattering or revolutionary, this book will generate excitement in those practitioners who are looking for new ways to work with their students and clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Theory and philosophy in the psychology of the arts.

Philosophy, historically at least, has played a large role in aesthetics, for philosophical aesthetics dates back to Aristotle's Poetics, and has attracted the attention of such notable thinkers as Kant, Dewey, Santayana, and Croce. Nonetheless, if I had to identify the philosophical foundation of most empirical astheticians, hedonism emerges as the clear winner. That is, researchers who study why people appreciate art subscribe to the pleasure theory of aesthetics. On the theoretical side, psychology of the arts is also richly endowed. Great names from psychology's past, such as Fechner, Wundt, and Freud—all have expressed views about the foundations of the aesthetic experience. Many of these early traditions survive in some form in current empirical research. At this point, the enthusiasm for cognitive science in general psychology has yet to filter down to empirical aesthetics in any conspicuous fashion, albeit some researchers (e.g., Martin Lindauer) would consider themselves cognitive psychologists. Perhaps the aesthetic experience is too innovative to fit readily in a cognitive framework. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Art and disabilities.

Reviews the book, Art and disabilities by F. Ludin Katz and E. Katz (1983). This book describes the mechanics of establishing an art center for persons with disabilities. Although the authors purport to discuss the philosophical and conceptual importance of encouraging an artistic outlet for disabled individuals, the text's real contribution lies in its methodical and detailed "how-to" discussion of implementing an art center. The book is designed to provide a step-by-step account of problems to anticipate and solutions to be tried. Its authors clearly delineate how to establish an independent art center for people with disabilities. From discussion of by-laws to consideration of public relations and financial support, the reader is shown in the most concrete of ways how to establish such a center. In summary, while variable in quality, this book meets its primary objective of presenting a "cookbook" to those hoping to establish a creative arts center. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Counseling and Therapy Skills.

Reviews the book, Counseling and Therapy Skills by David G. Martin (1983). The stated goal of this book is "to communicate more than an academic understanding of the principles of therapy: to give the reader skills that can actually be applied in the counseling setting" (p. vii). The first six chapters focus on the concept of empathy, listening skills, facilitative responding, confrontation, giving control to the client, and relationship issues. The second part book consists primarily of illustrations of therapy by five therapists (including the author). This material is followed by four chapters on the special topics of behavioural interventions, assessment, ethical issues, and how to conduct initial and final interviews. The author concludes with a theoretical section of four chapters in which he briefly discusses contributions by some of the "schools" of therapy, and then addresses the relationship between anxiety and distress, some theoretical principles underlying therapy, and the research evidence on the effectiveness of empathic responding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The saturated self: Dilemmas of identity in contemporary life.

Reviews the book, The saturated self: Dilemmas of identity in contemporary life by Kenneth J. Gergen (see record 1991-97621-000). There is, perhaps, no other concept as seminal for psychology as the self. For this reason alone, Kenneth Gergen's book represents an important contribution to our understanding of this influential concept. However, Gergen's vision is so broad, his arguments so compelling, and the implications so revolutionary, that the work defies confinement exclusively within the walls of academia. In essence, Gergen is articulating his vision of a postmodern world, and he lays an invitation squarely before the reader to come and partake. The conception of the self as private and autonomous is the focus of Gergen's postmodern challenge. In his chapter, "Social Saturation and the Populated Self," Gergen postulates that technological innovation in contemporary society has made possible a rapid proliferation of relationships. This he refers to as the "process of social saturation." Gergen's book constitutes a substantive contribution to psychology's on going understanding of the self. Copious examples are provided throughout, drawing on and extending scholarly debates. Also included are anecdotes and evidences from such far ranging domains as art, film, music, literature, and architecture. These not only clarify and reinforce his arguments, but also illustrate the scope and practicality of the position he espouses. Although readers may not embrace the gestalt of Gergen's vision of a postmodern culture, they are certain to find this book to be a provocative and rewarding read. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)