Type IV errors and Games.

Replies to P. A. Games's (see PA, Vol. 51:Issue 3) criticisms of the authors' conception of Type IV errors in analyses of variance. It is argued that contrasts must be congruent with the mathematical model underlying the structure of the variable, while Games appears to believe that the latent structure is relatively unimportant since the interaction and simple effects models can be combined to form a cell means model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type IV errors and interactions.

Extends L. A. Marascuilo and J. R. Levin's notion of Type IV errors, emphasizing the interpretation of interactions in factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) designs. To help clarify what an interaction is and what it is not in terms of the ANOVA model, it is emphasized that (a) comparisons designed to explain an interaction are acceptable only if they reduce to comparisons involving interaction parameters exclusively; and (b) such comparisons may be both specified and directional, i.e., they may be defined to test an E's a priori hypotheses. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the probability of making Type I errors.

A statistical test leads to a Type I error whenever it leads to the rejection of a null hypothesis that is in fact true. The probability of making a Type I error can be characterized in the following 3 ways: the conditional prior probability, the overall prior probability, and the conditional posterior probability. In this article, we show (a) that the alpha level can be equated with the 1st of these and (b) that it provides an upper bound for the second but (c) that it does not provide an estimate of the third, although it is commonly assumed to do so. We trace the source of this erroneous assumption first to statistical texts used by psychologists, which are generally ambiguous about which of the 3 interpretations is intended at any point in their discussions of Type I errors and which typically confound the conditional prior and posterior probabilities. Underlying this, however, is a more general fallacy in reasoning about probabilities, and we suggest that this may be the result of erroneous inferences about probabilistic conditional statements. Finally, we consider the possibility of estimating the (posterior) probability of a Type I error in situations in which the null hypothesis is rejected and, hence, the proportion of statistically significant results that may be Type I errors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type I, Type II, and other types of errors in pattern analysis.

C. J. Krauskopf (1991) is to be commended for calling attention to the fact that pattern analysis is subject not only to Type I errors but also Type II errors, which were not even mentioned by A. B. Silverstein (1982). There are, however, a number of points on which the authors still differ. Most notably, Krauskopf's recommendation not only fails to solve the multiple-comparisons problem, it exacerbates that problem. Other possibilities are considered, including the possibility that the assumption on which pattern analysis is based, clinical meaningfulness, is itself an error. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Remediation revisited.

This article replies to comments by J. C. Gonsiorek (see record 84-33291), P. Orr (see record 84-33300), and L. S. Brown (see record 84-33284 ) on M.J. Layman and J.R. McNamara's (see record 84-33293) work on remediation and ethics violations. The authors acknowledge various distinctions they have introduced but continue to argue that sexual violations are outstandingly egregious. They agree that making amends is important but wonder about the practicalities of working this into rehabilitation. Lack of empirical knowledge about what is prescribed for remediation is reemphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Termination revisited.

Comments on articles on the topic of termination by M. S. Bergmann, S. E. Chazan, S. J. Ellman, K. A. Garcia-Lawson and R. C. Lane, J. H. Golland, D. M. Kaplan, J. Novick, and W. S. Poland (see records 1997-05806-002, 1997-05806-007, 1997-05806-005, 1997-05806-008, 1997-05806-009, 1997-05806-003, 1997-05806-001, and 1997-05806-004, respectively). Termination is examined not just as the ending of a treatment where loose ends are ties up, so to say, but as a unique opportunity to work on the unconscious meaning of this ending for the patient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Traits revisited.

"… much of our research on traits is overweighted with methodological preoccupation… we have too few restraints holding us to the structure of a life as it is lived. We find ourselves confused by our intemperate empiricism which often yields unnamable factors, arbitrary codes, unintelligible interaction effects, and sheer flatulence from our computors… I propose the restraints of 'houristic realism' which accepts the common-sense assumption that persons are real beings, that each has a real neuropsychic organization, and that our job is to comprehend this organization as well as we can." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suggestion revisited.

Discusses suggestion in psychotherapy and defines it as a body–affective process, an indissociable psychosociobiological entity that acts at an archaic unconscious level far beyond that of transference, mediates the influence of one individual on another, and is capable of producing manifest psychological and physiological changes. Present in all types of therapy, indirect (nondeliberate, nonintentional) suggestion is the element that plays an important role in change and can be observed in hypnotic experimentation. It is further argued that transference and suggestion are phenomena that do not altogether overlap. Suggestion is the condition of transference without which transference could not be established. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stuffy revisited.

Compared the proportion of self-references made by authors published in journals rated as high prestige and low prestige in a prior study by K. C. Mace and H. D. Warner (1973). The high prestige journal showed significantly more self-referencing, possibly supporting the contention that this practice is based on a need for professional self-aggrandizement. Alternate interpretations of the result are proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rosenhan revisited.

The author revived the methodology used by David Rosenhan in his controversial 1973 study, titled "On Being Sane in Insane Places" (Rosenhan, see record 1973-21600-001) in order to evaluate whether progress has occurred in the mental health field over the past several decades. In a seminal study by Rosenhan (1973), 8 people without any history of psychiatric illness presented themselves at various mental hospitals. Each of these pseudopatients arrived at the admissions office complaining of a single (feigned) symptom: vague auditory hallucinations. They were all admitted to the hospital, and their average length of stay was 19 days, despite the fact that once they were on the unit, they ceased feigning the symptom and behaved normally. Rosenhan claimed that the results of this study illustrated the powerful role of context in determining how people's behavior is regarded and raised serious questions about the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. The present study is a replication of sorts, modified to suit the contemporary, postdeinstitutionalization state of mental health care. The findings suggest that a significant shift has occurred in mental health care since 1973. At the time of the original study by Rosenhan (1973), the troubling issue was the ease with which people could receive an unwarranted diagnosis and unnecessary treatment for a nonexistent mental disorder. In today's mental health care environment, the troubling issue is the difficulty involved in obtaining treatment that is warranted for conditions that are present. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type IV reactions in the skin

Delayed type (Type IV) hypersensitivity is commonly manifested in clinical practice as allergic eczematous contact dermatitis (AECD). This reaction can be transferred by lymphoid cells but not serum and parallels other T lymphocyte immune responses. Recent evidence correlates the sensitization phase of AECD with in vitro lymphocyte transformation and the elicitation phase with lymphokine activity. Although a bewildering variety of haptens may be responsible for AECD, they have in common an ability to form co-valent bonds with proteins. Patch testing with the offending antigen will reproduce the disease. Therapy of choice remains topical or systemic corticosteroids.     

Kappa revisited.

Reviews the relationship between matching models discussed in combinatorial probability theory and the measurement of nominal scale response agreement. An emphasis is placed on indexing response agreement between 2 raters using the kappa statistic developed by J. Cohen (1960, 1968), J. L. Fleiss (1969, 1971, 1973), R. J. Light (1971), and others. Appropriate mean and variance expressions are provided, and their use is illustrated with a numerical example. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peace revisited.

Replies to comments by Ralph H. Gundlach on an article, attributed to an E. J. McGuigan, "Crash Research Program for Peace" (see record 1959-08088-001). The present author, F. J. McGuigan, states that Gundlach either says or implies that in the article in question it is assumed that principles of individual behavior are applicable to groups, that such factors as "hurt pride, jealously [sic], or social pressure. Now it may well be that these are proper assertions to make about his position, or in fact they may not be proper. Similarly Gundlach's assertions in addition to those above may or may not be true. But whether or not these things are true is really irrelevant to the article in question for none of them are either asserted or denied, as even a cursory reading should show. The investigation was merely an attempt to obtain a sample of reactions from individuals who might influence international policy on the question of research on the problem of warfare. Clearly any restrictions on how to attack such a problem by stating limiting assumptions at this time would be premature. In any event, Gundlach's interest, in peace is to be praised. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maelstrom revisited.

Comments on K. D. Brownell and J. Rodin's (see record 1995-03008-001) review of the debate (i.e., maelstrom) over the risks and benefits of weight loss dieting. Discussion includes the lack of evidence for the long term safety of clinical treatments for obesity, the effectiveness of weight loss maintenance programs, and the efficacy and safety of weight loss diets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Objectivity revisited.

Contends that G. M. Alliger and P. J. Hanges's (see record 1985-02739-001) assertion that Paradigm I scientists acknowledge their personal inability to make completely value-free observations has no bearing on the present author's (see record 1983-20002-001) argument. Their attempt to characterize the objectivity of science fails to distinguish it from numerous other social enterprises, such as theology and baseball. G. Nettler (see record 1985-02742-001) misses the structure of the present author's argument and supposes that he subscribes to views that he has cited only to refute. The author's basic claim is misrepresented in both these critiques. It is not suggested that one should prefer subjectivity to objectivity but that the distinction between subjectivity and objectivity is incoherent. Contrary to Nettler's suggestion, the abandonment of the subject–object distinction does not commit one to the view that experience is chaotic. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type IV Creep Damage Behavior in Gr.91 Steel Welded Joints

Modified 9Cr-1Mo steel (ASME Grade 91 steel) is used as a key structural material for boiler components in ultra-supercritical (USC) thermal power plants at approximately 873 K (600 °C). The creep strength of welded joints of this steel decreases as a result of Type IV creep cracking that forms in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) under long-term use at high temperatures. The current article aims to elucidate the damage processes and microstructural degradations that take place in the HAZ of these welded joints. Long-term creep tests for base metal, simulated HAZ, and welded joints were conducted at 823 K, 873 K, and 923 K (550 °C, 600 °C, and 650 °C). Furthermore, creep tests of thick welded joint specimens were interrupted at several time steps at 873 K (600 °C) and 90 MPa, after which the distribution and evolution of creep damage inside the plates were measured quantitatively. It was found that creep voids are initiated in the early stages (0.2 of life) of creep rupture life, which coalesce to form a crack at a later stage (0.8 of life). In a fine-grained HAZ, creep damage is concentrated chiefly in an area approximately 20 pct below the surface of the plate. The experimental creep damage distributions coincide closely with the computed results obtained by damage mechanics analysis using the creep properties of a simulated fine-grained HAZ. Both the concentration of creep strain and the high multiaxial stress conditions in the fine-grained HAZ influence the distribution of Type IV creep damage.     

Multiplicity, directional (Type III) errors, and the Null Hypothesis.

L. V. Jones and J. W. Tukey (2000) pointed out that the usual 2-sided, equal-tails null hypothesis test at level ot can be reinterpreted as simultaneous tests of 2 directional inequality hypotheses, each at level α/2, and that the maximum probability of a Type I error is α/2 if the truth of the null hypothesis is considered impossible. This article points out that in multiple testing with familywise error rate controlled at ot, the directional error rate (assuming all null hypotheses are false) is greater than α/2 and can be arbitrarily close to α. Single-step, step-down, and step-up procedures are analyzed, and other error rates, including the false discovery rate, are discussed. Implications for confidence interval estimation and hypothesis testing practices are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Oneness fantasies revisited.

The research program initiated by Lloyd Silverman on effects of the subliminal activation of oneness fantasies concluded that unconscious oneness fantasies can enhance adaptation if, simultaneously, a sense of self can be preserved. However, formulations with respect to the developmental origins of these fantasies and their ubiquitous role in pathology and everyday life may have overemphasized the contribution of the fantasy of a oneness experience and underestimated the equally important contribution of the experience of a preserved, intact sense of self. To redress this imbalance, oneness experiences and sense of self are proposed to define the endpoints of a dimension of experience optimally characterized by a flexibility to span this range. Although we assume that experiences throughout the life span contribute to this dimension, we use the data from empirical infant research to suggest that early experiences of matching, disruptions, and repair of ruptures in mother-infant interactive attunements make a relevant contribution to its establishment. It is suggested that this range of experience is represented and subjected to symbolic elaboration, a process that continues throughout life. The oneness fantasy is proposed as a product of symbolic elaboration, a fantasy... (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conjunction search revisited.

Search for conjunctions of highly discriminable features can be rapid or even parallel. This article explores three possible accounts based on (a) perceptual segregation, (b) conjunction detectors, and (c) inhibition controlled separately by two or more distractor features. Search rates for conjunctions of color, size, orientation, and direction of motion correlated closely with an independent measure of perceptual segregation. However, they appeared unrelated to the physiology of single-unit responses. Each dimension contributed additively to conjunction search rates, suggesting that each was checked independently of the others. Unknown targets appear to be found only by serial search for each in turn. Searching through 4 sets of distractors was slower than searching through 2. The results suggest a modification of feature integration theory, in which attention is controlled not only by a unitary "window" but also by a form of feature-based inhibition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)