Effects of attendance, note-taking, and review on memory for a lecture: Encoding vs. external storage functions of notes.

Assessed the importance of note taking (an encoding function) and note reviewing (an external storage function) on memory for a lecture. One week following various conditions of film-viewing, note taking, and review of notes, 144 psychology students (aged 17–19 yrs) completed a quiz based on the contents of a videotaped lecture dealing with an unfamiliar but relevant topic. Ss who reviewed a thorough set of lecturer notes prior to the test performed better than those who had no notes to review, irrespective of whether they had taken personal notes, simply viewed and listened, or had attended the film at all. The latter 3 activities had no significant effect on test scores. Ss who reviewed their own notes performed at an intermediate level, scoring generally lower than those who reviewed lecturer notes but higher than those who did not review. Results are interpreted as support for an external storage rather than an encoding function of note taking. (French abstract) (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex guilt and sexual arousal on the retention of birth control information.

Tested the notion that high-sex-guilt individuals have difficulty retaining sex-related information. 28 male and 28 female undergraduates were assigned in equal numbers to a high and a low sex-guilt group. Within each group, 1/2 of the Ss were sexually stimulated by reading erotic passages, while 1/2 read neutral passages. All Ss then listened to a lecture on birth control and took an exam based on the lecture. Results indicate that high-sex-guilt Ss retained less lecture information than low-guilt Ss. In addition, sexually stimulated Ss displayed poorer lecture retention than nonstimulated Ss. Across all conditions, females retained more lecture information than males. Results support the hypothesis that guilt-generated anxiety raises arousal past the optimum level necessary for efficient recall performance. Females had a greater interest in learning about birth control than males. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of previous performance on evaluations of present performance.

In Study 1, 82 undergraduates viewed 3 videotaped lectures presented by the same lecturer. Ss in the good-performance condition viewed 2 good lectures, followed by a lecture of average quality. Ss in the poor-performance condition viewed 2 poor lectures, followed by the same average lecture. Results show significant contrast effects both for ratings of the frequency of several critical behaviors and for performance evaluations. Ss in the poor-performance condition assigned more favorable behavior ratings and higher performance evaluation ratings to the 3rd (average) lecture than did Ss in the good-performance condition. In Study 2, 71 Ss were used to test the hypothesis that memory biases were responsible for the contrast effects observed in Study 1. Ss viewed the same videotapes but rated the 3rd tape from memory the day after viewing the tape. Results show weak, nonsignificant contrast effects, suggesting that memory biases were not sufficient to explain the results of Study 1. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Note-taking, individual differences, and memory for lecture information.

Investigated the encoding function of note taking and processing differences between successful and less successful students in lecture situations in 2 experiments. In Exp I, 48 undergraduates either took notes or listened during a lecture. Different memory patterns were found for these 2 groups, with note-takers recalling many more high- than low-importance propositions and listeners recalling an equal number of high- and low-importance propositions. Results suggest that note taking enhanced organizational processing of lecture information. In Exp II, the notes and recall of 80 successful and less successful students were compared. Successful Ss recalled more of the most important propositions, but these 2 groups of Ss did not differ in their recall of less important propositions. For both groups of Ss, recall content was closely related to the content of the notes, with successful Ss recording more high-importance propositions in their notes. Also, successful and less successful Ss were similar in their note-taking styles and the degree to which they benefited from reviewing their notes. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generative effects of note-taking during science lectures.

Two experiments investigated the generative hypothesis of how note-taking affects the learner's cognitive processing during encoding. Ss were required to take notes or not take notes while viewing a videotaped lecture on automobile engines and were then administered 4 posttests. In Exp I, 40 11th graders who had no prior experience with the lecture material served as Ss. Results reveal a pattern of interaction in which note-takers performed better than those who did not take notes on far-transfer tasks such as problem solving but worse on near-transfer tasks such as fact retention and verbatim recognition. Findings from Exp II, with 89 undergraduates (60 of whom were unfamiliar and 29 of whom were familiar with the lecture material), indicate that the same pattern occurred for Ss who were moderately familiar with the material but not for Ss who were highly familiar. Other treatments of Exp II such as taking summary notes or answering conceptual questions during breaks in the lecture produced results similar to those of note-taking. Results are consistent with M. C. Wittrock's (1974) idea that note-taking can be a generative activity that encourages students to build connections between what is presented and what they already know. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived control in the college classroom: Limitations in instructor expressiveness due to noncontingent feedback and lecture content.

Consistent with various control theories, recent evidence suggests that exposure to noncontingent outcomes interferes with instructional quality in the college classroom. The present study examined whether the density of negative noncontingent outcomes limits instructor expressiveness as an effective teaching behavior in different lecture content conditions. 361 undergraduates took an aptitude test that provided contingent feedback (CF) or low or medium noncontingent failure feedback (NCFF). Ss completed an attribution questionnaire and then observed a videotaped lecture low or high in content given by a low- or high-expressive instructor, after which Ss responded to a postlecture achievement test and an attribution questionnaire. Medium NCFF reduced Ss' perceived control and lowered their internal attribution locus for their aptitude performance, compared to low NCFF and CF. Postlecture results indicated that for high-content lectures, instructor expressiveness facilitated achievement and confidence in Ss who received CF and low NCFF but not in Ss who received medium NCFF. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instructor-delivered sequential evaluative feedback upon student's subsequent classroom-related performance and instructor ratings.

128 college students were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 instructor-delivered evaluative feedback conditions (uniformly positive, uniformly negative, negative-to-positive, or positive-to-negative). Expectations for subsequent performance were effectively manipulated by false evaluative feedback. Ss then listened to an audiotaped lecture, after which they took an exam on the lecture (the performance measure). Finally, Ss rated the instructor who gave the audiotaped lecture. The instructor-delivered evaluative feedback manipulation had a significant effect on the Ss' performance and ratings of the instructor, such that performance was better and ratings of the instructor were higher in the uniformly positive condition, followed, respectively, by the negative-to-positive, positive-to-negative, and uniformly negative conditions. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lecturing, reading, and modeling in counselor restatement training.

In this study with a total of 92 Caucasian female counselor trainees, Ss' verbal behavior change was viewed as being dependent on the training program components, i.e., verbal, written, and model presentations. Specific hypotheses were derived concerning the quantitative production of the target verbal behavior given the training program design. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental groups: (a) control group; (b) lecture presentation; (c) lecture and reading presentation; and (d) lecture, reading, and model presentation. After exposure to the training program detailing restatement, Ss responded to 10 audiorecorded client statements. One-way analyses of variance demonstrated that the lecture presentation produced a significant increase of target verbal behavior, as did the addition of reading. Model presentation after the 2 symbolic model presentations did not cause a significant increase in production. Implications of symbolic modeling for counselor training and research are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of expected and obtained grades on teacher evaluation and attribution of performance.

72 college students were randomly assigned to expect that they would perform at either the A, B, or C level on a subsequent exam. Ss then listened to a taped lecture, after which they took an exam on the lecture. Ss were then randomly assigned to believe that they had obtained either an A, B, or C grade. Finally, Ss evaluated the lecturer and indicated the degree to which they attributed their performance to themselves or to the lecturer. There were significant main effects of expected and obtained grades such that the lower the expected grade or the higher the obtained grade the more favorable the teacher evaluation. Ss who obtained an A attributed the causality for their performance most strongly to themselves, while Ss obtaining a C attributed their performance most strongly to the teacher. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of discovery learning as a function of student conceptual level.

Attempted to extend the construct validity of D. E. Hunt's (see record 1971-27828-001) conceptual level (CL) model for matching students' learning style with appropriate teaching methods. 64 11th graders with high or low CL (as measured by Hunt's paragraph completion test) were taught to analyze the components of a famous painting by 1 of 2 teaching methods that varied in degree of structure: discovery (low structure) and lecture (high structure). Ss then completed an art interpretation essay measuring their comprehension, integration, and recall of the theme of the painting. Integration scores support the prediction that low-CL Ss would perform significantly better with the lecture method than with the discovery method. Teaching method was not significant for high-CL Ss. Results are discussed in terms of the role of compensatory factors (i.e., what a student requires) and preferential factors (i.e., what a student likes). (French summary) (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity of student ratings of instruction under different incentive conditions: A further study of the Dr. Fox effect.

Investigated the validity of student ratings of instruction for different lecturer types. 212 undergraduates were divided into 12 equivalent groups. Groups viewed a lecture that varied in substantive teaching points covered (high, medium, low) and expressiveness of delivery (high, low). Half were offered an incentive to learn before the lecture; the other half after the lecture. Ss then rated lecture effectiveness and completed an achievement test. Higher achievement was associated with more content coverage and before-lecture incentives. Differences in lecture expressiveness did not affect achievement. Student ratings generally reflected inservice and continuing-education programs; differences in content coverage under low-expressiveness conditions, but were not sensitive to variations in content coverage when lectures were high in expressiveness. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory of lectures: Effect of delay and distractor type.

Tested recognition memory for critical sentences from a classroom lecture as a function of lecture instructions, length of retention interval, and type of recognition test items, using 85 undergraduates. When tested immediately after the lecture, Ss differentiated the original sentences from reworded and inferential statements that were similar in meaning. At longer delays, however, only the inferences were recognized as not having been presented in the lecture. Labeling a lecture statement as important had little effect on recognition of the original item, although it did enhance recognition of the other item types. Findings confirm other recent reports of verbatim memory for natural speech. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of subsequent performance on evaluations of previous performance.

Tested the hypothesis that subsequent performance levels would bias the recall and evaluations of a ratee's previous level of performance with 183 undergraduates, who rated 3 videotaped lectures in either immediate or delayed rating conditions. The 1st videotape depicted an average level of performance and was followed by either 2 good lectures or 2 poor lectures. A significant performance level?×?time of rating interaction was found, in which memory-based ratings were biased in the direction of subsequent performance (i.e., when there was a delay between observation and rating, Ss who had seen an average lecture followed by good lectures rated that average lecture more favorably than did Ss who had seen that same lecture followed by poor lectures). It is suggested that raters are biased in favor of recalling behaviors that are consistent with their general impression of a ratee and that subsequent performance may systematically alter the rater's recall of the ratee's previous behavior. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Encoding and external-storage effects on writing processes.

Across 4 experiments, undergraduate students viewed a 19-min videotape lecture about types of creativity and then wrote a compare-and-contrast essay for 25 min. In Exps 1 (immediate writing) and 2 (delayed writing), Ss either listened or took notes under 1 of 3 note-taking formats and then wrote with or without notes. In both experiments, Ss writing from their own notes (encoding plus external storage) composed more organized and lengthier essays than Ss writing without their notes (encoding only). Exps 3 and 4 examined the external-storage effect separately from the encoding effect. In delayed writing (Exp 4), Ss composing from provided notes wrote lengthier essays than Ss composing without notes. Results support the effects of external storage and encoding plus external storage on writing processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived control in the college classroom: Response–outcome contingency training and instructor expressiveness effects on student achievement and causal attributions.

Following an incentive (low, high) manipulation, 296 college students received response–outcome contingency training involving contingent, noncontingent, or no feedback and responded to an attribution questionnaire. All Ss then observed a lecture presented by a low- or high-expressive instructor and completed a postlecture achievement test and an attribution questionnaire. Results show that noncontingent Ss perceived less control and also manifested a helplessness attribution profile after the contingency manipulation. Postlecture results indicate that the high- compared to the low-expressive instructor increased achievement and internal locus in contingent but not noncontingent Ss for low-incentive conditions only. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher control strategies and choice of educational objectives among college students.

Studied effects of high vs low teacher control strategies on student educational objectives in a quasi-simulation university career game. 60 undergraduates, divided into 2 groups on the basis of scores on A. Mehrabian's measure of achievement motivation, were randomly assigned to high or low teacher control conditions. High-control Ss heard a 20-min lecture on choices available in a university career. Low-control Ss were invited to begin the simulation game immediately and explore alternatives as they proceeded. Results show that high-control Ss made significantly more goal choices for educational efficiency, while low-control Ss made significantly more choices favoring personal and social growth. Individual level of achievement motivation modified these overall results in predicted directions. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gain–loss versus reinforcement–affect ordering of student ratings of teaching: Effect of rating instructions.

Investigated whether student rating instructions would influence the rank ordering by 83 undergraduates of 4 lecture quality sequences, (i.e., whether instructions influence primacy and recency effects). It was also investigated whether affect, self-esteem, and liking would show the same ordering for the 4 lecture quality sequences as ratings. In a laboratory analog of a classroom, using videotaped lectures, initial testing (good or poor Lecture 1), final teaching (good or poor Lecture 2), and student rating instructions (consider only Lecture 2, consider Lectures 1 and 2) were manipulated in a 2?×?2?×?2 design. Effects were measured on final ratings of the instructor, liking for the instructor, S affect, and S self-esteem. For Ss considering only Lecture 2, ratings and liking varied moderately and inversely with Lecture 1 quality (negative primacy effect) and greatly with Lecture 2 quality (positive recency effect), consistent with gain–loss theory. For Ss considering both Lectures 1 and 2, ratings and liking varied moderately with Lecture 1 quality (positive primacy effect) and greatly with Lecture 2 quality (positive recency effect), consistent with reinforcement–affect theory. Evidence failed to show that the effect of lecture quality on liking and ratings was mediated by affect or self-esteem. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between student personality characteristics, teacher ratings, and student achievement.

In Study 1, 388 undergraduates (a) rated themselves on the Adjective Check List (ACL), (b) viewed a videotape that varied in instructor expressiveness and lecture content, (c) evaluated the videotaped instructor and a test on the lecture, and (d) completed the ACL for the instructor. In Study 2, 87 Ss were also exposed to 2 videotaped lectures given 1 wk apart. In Study 3, 108 Ss completed the ACL for themselves and their instructors, evaluated their instructor's teaching, and completed a test on common course material. No meaningful or consistent relationship between ratings and student personality characteristics appeared to exist. Personality characteristics of instructors were related to teacher effectiveness ratings. Ratings predicted teacher-produced achievement equally well for classes that differed in the personality characteristics of the students enrolled. Teacher effects on ratings appeared significantly greater than teacher effects on achievement. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of continuous and intermittent self-monitoring on academic behavior.

Conducted a project with 27 undergraduate Ss dealing with review preparation for the general aptitude portions of the Graduate Record Examination. A linear teaching machine programed with quantitative and verbal problems was employed. The Ss were randomly assigned to 4 conditions: (a) continuous self-monitoring, (b) intermittent self-monitoring, (c) performance feedback, and (d) control. Self-monitoring Ss were instructed to record their progress by pressing a counter on either a continuous or intermittent schedule following correct answers. Performance-feedback Ss received information on the accuracy of their responding but were not given the opportunity to self-monitor. Control Ss received neither self-monitoring instructions nor performance feedback. Results show that self-monitoring Ss remained for significantly longer review sessions and that this effect was more pronounced under the continuous rather than the intermittent schedule. Self-monitoring Ss also displayed significantly better accuracy on quantitative problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with a diagnosis of multiple sclerosis.

Examined the relation between coping and depression in 38 women and 12 men (aged 21–58 yrs) recently diagnosed with multiple sclerosis (MS). A semistructured interview was used to assess how Ss coped with the onset of disabling illness, and to assess depressive symptomatology. According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-III-Revised (DSM-III-R) criteria, 18 Ss were diagnosed with major depression, 11 Ss were diagnosed with adjustment disorder with depressed mood, and 21 Ss did not satisfy the criteria for any affective disorder. Interview results indicate that nondepressed Ss were more likely to use present focus and avoidance/denial strategies to deal with illness onset than Ss with major depression or adjustment disorder. Discussion addresses why these strategies may be an adaptive means of dealing with the onset of MS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)