Determination of relative damage of asphalt pavement from reduced tire contact area

Considering the traditional contact area which is a full circular contact area without any tread, in the current pavement design procedure, is an extreme overestimation of contact area and hence extreme underestimation of the real contact stress. Since the relationship between the contact stress and pavement damage is not linear but exponential, even a trivial difference between tire contact areas leads to significant difference in terms of induced pavement damage. This study was conducted to quantify the relative damage caused by realistic tire–pavement contact area with respect to the full contact area. Therefore, permanent deformation profiles of different contact areas at three tire load groups were obtained using an in-house Rotary Compactor and Wheel Tracker equipment and the relative damage analyses were done between tires with and without tread from various aspects. These aspects include operational life reduction ratio, rutting rate, linear and nonlinear relative damage concepts. It was concluded that on average real tires with tread cause 57% reduction in the operational life. In average, real tires with tread induce 1.23 times more mm per cycle. Based on linear relative damage analysis, in average, real tires with tread are 2.6 times more damaging. Furthermore, nonlinear relative damage analyses indicate that real tires with tread induce about three times more rutting compared to the worn-out control tread.     

不同花纹轮胎噪声辐射特性

轮胎噪声是交通环境噪声的主要来源之一,也是汽车噪声的主要声源。用虚拟模型预测的方法对滚动轮胎的振动辐射噪声进行预测分析。通过对滚动轮胎施加路面简谐激励,获取滚动轮胎表面加速度响应并作为声学分析的边界条件。采用边界元的方法分析不同花纹形式的滚动轮胎在路面激励下振动辐射噪声特性,结果表明花纹形式直接影响着滚动轮胎振动辐射噪声的大小,胎面花纹质量越小,振动辐射噪声越大,研究结果具有工程应用价值。     

变节距花纹轮胎噪声特性研究

采用主流的室内实验室转鼓方法对变节距花纹轮胎噪声进行了测试。对具有复杂花纹的乘用轮胎和载重轮胎的噪声频谱特性进行对比分析。对于乘用轮胎,轮胎花纹噪声随着速度的增加呈现一个偏于线性的增长趋势;对于载重轮胎,轮胎花纹噪声反而没有明显的增长趋势,曲线较为平缓;不同品牌乘用轮胎与不同品牌载重轮胎在标准速度下的1/3倍频程频谱曲线变化趋势有较大差异;与手工刻制的等节距轮胎噪声相比,成品轮胎所采用的变节距花纹结构设计有效地降低了各频段噪声峰值;对于变节距花纹成品轮胎,波浪形态横沟设计优于锐角形态,更优于正交形态;连通组花纹结构优于半连通组,更优于不连通组。文章为低噪声轮胎花纹结构优化提供了有意义的参考结论。     

Finite element estimation of hysteretic loss and rolling resistance of 3-D patterned tire

Some of energy supplied to the vehicle driven on road is dissipated through rolling tires due to the hysteretic loss of rubber compounds, so the hysteretic loss is considered as a sort of pseudo-force resisting the tire rolling. This paper is concerned with the numerical prediction of the hysteretic loss and the rolling resistance (RR) of 3-D periodic patterned tire. A 3-D periodic patterned tire model is constructed by copying 1-sector tire mesh in the circumferential direction. Strain cycles during one revolution are approximated by utilizing the 3-D static tire contact analysis, for which the strain values at Gaussian points in the elements which are sector-wise repeated in the same circular ring of elements are taken. The strain amplitude during one revolution of tire is determined by taking the maximum principal value of the half amplitudes of each strain components in the multi-axial state of strain. The hysteretic loss during one revolution is predicted in terms of the loss modulus of rubber compound and the maximum principal value of the half amplitudes of six strain components. Through the numerical experiments, the validity of the proposed prediction method is examined by comparing with the experiment and the dependence of RR on the tread pattern is also investigated.     

Optimum shapes of tire‐treads for avoiding lateral slippage between tires and roads

Optimum design of tire‐tread sections is an important practical issue. However, useful study of the problem that can suggest a reliable guideline for determining the optimum tread sections had hardly been made in the past. The present paper describes a new analysis of the state of stresses in tire‐tread sections in contact with the road surface, taking special care of the boundary conditions. Based on the analysis, a method is proposed to determine the optimum tread shapes for avoiding lateral slippage between tires and roads. The displacement potential function formulation, an ideal mathematical model for the practical stress problems, has been used in conjunction with finite‐difference method of solution. For the present analysis, lateral slipping in absence of frictional resistance as well as the no‐slip conditions of the tire‐tread contact surface have been considered along with a large number of tread aspect ratios. The present computational approach proves to be a powerful tool for determining the optimum tread shapes for avoiding the lateral slippage of tire‐treads. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Baseline rolling resistance for tires’ on-road fuel efficiency using finite element modeling

Calculation of truck tires rolling resistance, using the finite element method and considering variables such as incompressible visco-hyperelastic rubber materials, accurate tire geometry and steady temperature distribution, is presented. The model was validated using experimentally measured contact area and contact stresses. Rolling resistance was calculated for three values of axle load, tire inflation pressure, temperature and speed. In addition, regression analysis was used to propose a mathematical expression for predicting rolling resistance as a function of the considered variables. Finally, the contribution of tire’s rubber components to the internal energy was quantified, and it was found that sidewall and subtread were the most relevant. The results of this study will help differentiate the contribution of pavement parameters, such as mean profile depth and international roughness index, to fuel efficiency.     

家猫爪垫减振机理及其在轮胎花纹中的仿生应用研究

猫科动物运动时表现出极强的减振特性,爪垫作为与地面接触的唯一躯体部分是影响减振效果的关键因素.通过对家猫爪垫的组织学和接地力学试验研究表明,爪垫的减振机理主要体现在:爪垫组织结构呈现的多层特征有助于衰减接地应力;正常行走步态下爪垫力学特性表征出的爪垫-地接触中存在摆动变形的运动特征有利于缓冲储能的发挥.利用家猫爪垫的减...     

高压水射流破碎胎面胶的脆化效应与胶粉形成

采用霍布金森压杆试验模拟子午线轮胎胎面胶的破碎回收过程,分析高压水射流冲击下胎面胶材料受力及响应状态,试验表明材料存在韧脆转变现象,进而发生脆性断裂。橡胶断口与胶粉微观形貌表明,裂纹扩展区呈现典型的放射状脆性断面形貌,并形成大量与胶粉尺寸匹配的平整光滑区域,直接验证了脆性断裂的存在并阐述其发生过程。然后利用应力波传播判据和脆断力学分析解释了胎面胶材料出现脆化效应的原因。对材料韧脆转变的影响因素进行分析后可知,高压水射流冲击过程中,材料质点变形速度远大于韧脆转变临界速度,在力学性能上表现为断裂应力小于屈服应力,致使材料发生脆性断裂并形成精细胶粉。     

轮胎模具花纹造型设计关键技术

轮胎花纹设计是轮胎造型设计中的技术难题,通过分析轮胎花纹的造型过程,归纳出轮胎模具造型设计的关键步骤,并给出具体的解决方案。详细分析了平面二维花纹向轮胎表面映射的关键技术,建立了映射的原理,并给出了具体的算法。对花纹直壁面生成和花纹沟槽构造等步骤也提出了相应的解决思路。造型结果显示该方法可以有效地构造轮胎花纹的形状,效果明显。     

基于非线性黏弹性本构模型的轮胎滚动和生热

轮胎的滚动阻力和自生热是造成轮胎失效的原因之一,轮胎内部能量的产生主要取决于轮胎中橡胶材料的黏弹性能量耗散。文中基于超弹性模型和并行流变模型(PRF)描述了橡胶材料的非线性黏弹性响应特征,提出了一种预测实心轮胎温度分布和滚动阻力的方法。首先将线性黏弹性Prony级数转化为PRF模型的初始参数,并利用Isight软件根据多应变工况加载得到的应力松弛测试数据来校准材料参数,然后采用显式-热力耦合分析方法分析基于Prony级数和PRF模型的实心轮胎滚动过程的差异。结果表明,Prony级数无法描述橡胶材料的非线性行为,在显式动力学下计算的轮胎生热结果为0;PRF模型可以表征橡胶材料的非线性行为,并且计算的轮胎模型在0.3 s内温度上升了0.14℃。     

稳态滚动轮胎的有限元分析模型

建立了一个稳态滚动轮胎的有限元分析模型,考虑了轮胎变形的几何非线性、轮胎与地面和轮胎与轮辋的大变形非线性接触、轮胎材料的非均匀性、橡胶材料的不可压缩性和物理非线性、橡胶基复合材料的各向异性及轮胎与地面接触滑动摩擦。结果表明,该模型是较为合理的。      

橡胶复合材料结构非线性有限元分析

用非线性有限元法对一种典型的橡胶复合材料结构——轮胎的力学性能进行了分析。给出了轮胎滚动边界值问题的数学描述和有限元列式及相应的求解策略。取旋转刚体构形为参考构形, 得到消去时间变量的惯性场和控制方程。用增量约束方法处理轮胎滚动接触问题可以达到收敛快、精度高。研究了滚动参数对轮胎总体和局部变形和受力的影响。计算结果与已有数据和试验相吻合, 对轮胎设计和汽车动力学有指导意义。      

微纳米辐射交联橡胶粒子对轮胎胎面胶抗干滑性能的影响

提高轮胎胎面胶的抗干滑性能对提高汽车的安全驾驶性具有重要意义。文中应用平均粒径为160 nm的辐射交联型丁苯橡胶粒子(UFPSBR)制备了轮胎胎面胶用UFPSBR/天然橡胶(NR)/丁苯橡胶(SBR)复合材料。动摩擦系数实验、动态力学性能分析(DMA)和橡胶加工分析(RPA)等研究结果显示,与NR/SBR复合材料相比,15 phr UFPSBR粒子改性后的UFPSBR/NR/SBR复合材料的动摩擦系数增加了27%,同时,UFPSBR/NR/SBR复合材料在30℃的损耗因子(tanδ)值增大了30%,表明UFPSBR粒子具有显著提高轮胎胎面胶抗干滑性的作用。RPA研究结果发现,与NR/SBR复合材料在60℃时的tanδ值相比,UFPSBR/NR/SBR复合材料在60℃时的tanδ值显著降低,表明UFPSBR粒子也具有降低轮胎胎面胶滚动阻力的作用。     

Effectively reinforcing roles of the networked silica prepared using 3,3′-bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide in the physical properties of SBR compounds

The networked silica having pre-fabricated networks among silica particles is a new concept for the reinforcement of rubber compounds. The networked silica was designed to improve the fuel efficiency of tires while eliminating the disadvantages such as precure and ethanol production that arise in the conventional reinforcing system using coupling reagents. The networked silica was prepared using bis(triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide (TESPT) as a connecting chemical at various loading levels. The styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) compounds reinforced with the networked silica exhibited low filler–filler interaction and high rubber–filler interaction due to the entanglements between the rubber molecules and the connecting chains of the networked silica. The increased physical interaction improved the elastic properties and wear resistance, while lowering the rolling resistance of the rubber compounds, resulting in long tire service life and high automobile fuel efficiency. The enhanced physical properties of the SBR compounds reinforced with the networked silica supported their promising potential as reinforcing fillers for tire manufacture. The networked silica can readily replace the conventional silica-reinforced system, without requiring major modification of the processing conditions.     

Exploring new fields of virtual load prediction by accurate tire simulation for large deformations and flexible rim support

During the past ten years, there has been a significant trend in automotive design using low aspect ratio tires and increasingly run‐flat tires as well. In recent publications, the influence of those tire types on the dynamic loads – transferred from the road through the wheel into the car – have been examined pretty extensively, including comparative wheel force transducer measurements as well as computational results. It can be shown that the loads to the vehicle tend to increase when using low aspect ratio tires and particularly when using run‐flat tires. These tires provide higher stiffnesses while simultaneously introducing larger nonlinearities in the sidewall behavior [1–3]. Depending on manufacturer and the combination of vehicle size and wheel properties, these deformations can be so large that the tire belt and/or sidewall have contact with the rim crown (protected by the tire sidewall). The full vehicle simulation on virtual proving grounds is well established and important for the vehicle product development process. One of the most important subsystems in the virtual load assessment process, using full vehicle simulation is the tire model. The precision of that is essential for the overall accuracy of the virtual method. So the tendencies described above strongly require adaptations and improvements in the field of tire modeling. In 2007, Fraunhofer LBF together with Honda R&D started to examine the influences of low aspect ratio and run flat tires for the accuracy of full vehicle simulation results for durability relevant scenarios [3–5]. Those activities were the starting point for a four years joint activity to extend the usability of the virtual load prediction method by full vehicle simulation to application for which strong nonlinearities in the tire (large very transient deformation), but also in the vehicle model itself occur. As a part of that joint development, this paper summarizes the activities of Fraunhofer LBF to develop a dedicated tire model, which can accurately handle very large deformations of the tire up to misuse‐like applications. The model is based on the LBF tire model CDTire. In the first chapter several nonlinear extensions of the belt and sidewall model will be described which have been implemented to capture the large deformation behavior. These model extensions are also taking into account the belt‐to‐sidewall and sidewall‐to‐rim contact. To validate and to parameterize these model extensions, Fraunhofer LBF built a dedicated flat track test rig, which can be used to realize “roll‐over‐cleat” experiments using huge obstacles, so that belt‐to‐sidewall and sidewall‐to‐rim contact can be forced. This test rig will be described in chapter 2. The third chapter is dealing with the interface of the new tire model to a flexible rim. While the load transfer from road via tire into the vehicle is relatively easy to detect, for example by using wheel force transducers, the local forces acting on the rim flanges as well as on the wheel well (when e. g. passing a curb) are much more difficult to detect (in measurement as well as in simulation). LBF developed a method to detect local tire‐to‐rim interface forces and manage flexible rim simulation in Multi‐Body‐Simulation (LMS Virtual. Lab Motion – [6]). One key issue of the overall method is the capability of the tire model to predict local rim forces on the rim flanges in a suitable way. The second key issue is to combine the tire with a model of a flexible rim (which is embedded in a full vehicle MBS model). This method can be used to perform virtual load prediction of local, transient rim forces, which are the basis for CAE based fatigue life prediction of wheels applying typical durability test track and abuse load events.     

Failure analysis of tire tread separations

In-service catastrophic radial tire failure is often a separation of the tread and outer steel belt from the tire casing and inner steel belt. These separations generally occur in the field at high temperature and high speed. This paper presents a catalog of surface characteristics that define the various types of rubber cracking that take place during a tire belt-leaving-belt separation. A mechanism that explains the generation of the rapid tearing surface is used to detail the variation found in forensic examinations.     

基于MLE的滚动轮胎冲击振动噪声仿真分析

提出一种滚动轮胎冲击振动噪声预测的新方法。轮胎滚动接触引发的噪声是道路交通的一个重要课题,引发广泛关注,目前尚没有有效的分析预测方法。提出新方法包括用混合拉格朗日—欧拉描述法(Mixed Logrange Euler Method,MLE)分析大变形滚动接触结构的速度场、加速度场和接触变形。通过欧拉网格和拉格朗日网格的信息传递,完成滚动结构动力学分析。通过将轮胎花纹和胎冠整体三维建模,可以得到连续轮胎表面的加速度场。以参考空间中连续表面的加速度场作为声源,采用声学有限元方法得到滚动噪声的分布预测。实验和仿真结果对比证明本方法的可靠和准确,也证明1 000 Hz以下轮胎的滚动噪声主要是花纹的冲击振动引起的噪声。提出的方法为预测分析轮胎的滚动噪声开辟一条可行的道路。     

Failure analysis of tire separation in two-sized tires on Airbus planes

Two-sized radial tires from a famous brand have been installed on Airbus planes. Several times, tread throw failures have occurred with these types of tires. Laboratory observations showed that these two-sized tires feature two cut-type belt plies (belt plies with cut cord ends lined at either edge). These are the 7th and 8th belt plies and, on all failed tires, separation occurred at the cut cord ends of the 7th belt plies. Because the cut cord ends of the 7th and 8th belt plies were not chemically pre-treated after the fabric ply was cut to get belt ply strips, the adhesion strength between the rubber and the cut cord ends decreased significantly. This means that micro-cracks initiated easily around the cut cord ends of the 7th and 8th belt plies. Due to the structural effect of these two-sized tires, there was uneven wear on their treads with the third ribs having the maximum amount of remaining thickness. Uneven tread wear resulted in a higher load at the third ribs. This generated higher temperatures around the edge of the 7th belt ply at the later stages of one life cycle. The higher temperatures decreased the strength of the local rubber and sped up the rubber's aging process. The higher loads experienced around the edges of the 7th belt ply and transferred from the third rib, and the decreased mechanical properties of the rubber at that location (due to higher temperatures), ultimately sped up micro-crack formation and expansion at the cut cord ends of the 7th belt ply. This finally led to premature tire failure. The tire manufacturer is currently taking measures to modify the structure of these two-sized tires in order to avoid uneven wear and hopefully prevent such failures in the future.     

The “intelligent tire” utilizing passive SAW sensorsmeasurement of tire friction

The term “intelligent tire” describes tires equipped with sensor systems to monitor thermal and mechanical parameters while driving. Information about temperature, tire pressure, tread wear, etc., is collected and used for car operation and maintenance support. The contact between tire and road surface is a key parameter when characterizing the ability to accelerate, decelerate and steer a vehicle, therefore making contact monitoring important for modern car control systems. Following numerous previous theoretical works, the friction coefficient can be measured by evaluating the mechanical strain in the tire surface contacting the road-utilizing the deformation of the tread elements. A new monitoring method using passive radio requestable SAW sensors is presented. The principle, measurement setup and experimental results are shown     

不同轮胎花纹非均布荷载下沥青路面三维有限元分析

近年来对出现在路表面轮迹带边缘且向下扩展的纵向裂缝的研究,已成为国际沥青路面工程界对道路损坏研究的新热点。采用传统的均匀分布的垂直表面荷载模式不能解释路面的这种损坏。为了探求从上到下表面裂缝形成的原因,该文考虑不同的轮胎花纹形式,选用非均布车轮荷载模式建立了半刚性路面结构的三维有限元模型,采用大型有限元软件ABAQUS 进行了数值分析。计算结果表明:路面结构最大剪应力发生在路面表层,其值较大超过了面层材料的抗剪强度,可能是导致表面裂缝的直接原因,且裂缝出现在轮迹带边缘,表现为纵向裂缝的形式。无论是纵向花纹轮胎还是横向花纹轮胎,重载车辆对路面都极具破坏性。在重载作用下,纵向花纹轮胎比横向花纹轮胎对路面的破坏更大。轮胎花纹形式的不同,对路面的影响是不同的,横向花纹轮胎更易形成斜向裂缝。