Microstructural stability of fine-grained fully lamellar XD TiAl alloys by step aging

XD TiAl alloys (Ti-45 and 47Al-2Nb-2Mn+0.8 vol pct TiB₂) (at. pct) were oil quenched to produce fine-grained fully lamellar (FGFL) structures, and aging treatments at different temperatures for different durations were carried out to stabilize the FGFL structures. Microstructural examinations show that the aging treatments cause phase transformation of α ₂ to γ, resulting in stabilization of the lamellar structure, as indicated by a significant decrease in α ₂ volume fraction. However, several degradation processes are also introduced. After aging, within lamellar colonies, the α ₂ lamellae become finer due to dissolution, whereas most of the γ lamellae coarsen. The dissolution of α ₂ involves longitudinal dissolution and lateral dissolution. In addition, at lamellar colony boundaries, lamellar termination migration, nucleation and growth of γ grains, and discontinuous coarsening occur. With the exception of longitudinal dissolution, all the other transformation modes are considered as degradation processes as they result in a reduction in α ₂/γ interfaces. Different phase transformation modes are present to varying degrees in the aged FGFL structures, depending on aging conditions and Al content. A multiple step aging reduces the drive force for phase transformation at high temperature by promoting phase transformation via longitudinal dissolution at low temperatures. As a result, this aging procedure effectively stabilizes the lamellar structure and suppresses other degradation processes. Therefore, the multiple step aging is suggested to be an optimal aging condition for stabilizing FGFL XD TiAl alloys.     

The effect of extrinsic grain boundary dislocations on the grain size strengthening in polycrystals

The grain size dependence of flow stress at room temperature in the regime of small strains (0–2%) has been examined in as-annealed and 2% pre-strained and subsequently annealed specimens of 316L stainless steel. Grain sizes in the range of 3.4–22.4 μm were considered. The stress-strain curves exhibit linear hardening characteristic beyond 0.2% plastic strain. The analysis of the Hall-Petch parameters show a linear increase in σ₀(ϵ) and a linear decrease in K(ϵ) with strain in the as-annealed specimens. The increase in σ₀(ϵ) has been associated with both, the work-hardening processes in the grain interior and the long range stress field of extrinsic grain boundary dislocations (EGBDs). The EGBDs also act as sites of stress concentration thereby making it easier to generate dislocations in the vicinity of grain boundaries. Therefore, K(ϵ) which is function of the stress required to generate dislocations decreases with increasing strain. The observed drop in flow stress as a result of annealing of pre-stained specimens at 800°C has been related with the annihilation of dislocations at and in the vicinity of grain boundaries. Annealing at 550°C (this temperature is sufficient for the delocalization of the cores of EGBDs) does not have any significant effect on the density of dislocation at and in the vicinity of grain boundaries. Therefore, no significant change in the flow stress was obsereved.     

Effect of initial microstructure on microstructural instability and creep resistance of XD TiAl alloys

A number of lamellar structures were produced in XD TiAl alloys (Ti-45 at. pct and 47 at. pct Al-2 at. pct Nb-2 at. pct Mn+0.8 vol pct TiB₂) by selected heat treatments. During creep deformation, microstructural degradation of the lamellar structure was characterized by coarsening and spheroidization, resulting in the formation of fine globular structures at the grain boundaries. Grain boundary sliding (GBS) was thought to occur in local grains with a fine grain size, further accelerating the microstructural degradation and increasing the creep rate. The initial microstructural features had a great effect on microstructural instability and creep resistance. Large amounts of equiaxed γ grains hastened dynamic recrystallization, and the presence of fine lamellae increased the susceptibility to deformation-induced spheroidization. However, the coarsening and spheroidization were suppressed by stabilization treatments, resulting in better creep resistance than the microstructures without these treatments. Furthermore, well-interlocked grain boundaries with lamellar incursions were effective in restraining the onset of GBS and microstructural degradation. In the microstructures with smooth grain boundaries, a fine lamellar spacing significantly lowered the minimum creep rate but rapidly increased the tertiary creep rate for the 45 XD alloy. For the 47 XD alloy, well-interlocked grain boundaries dramatically improved the creep resistance of nearly and fully lamellar (FL) structures, in spite of the presence of coarse lamellar spacing or equiaxed γ grains. However, it may not be feasible to produce a microstructure with both a fine lamellar spacing and well-interlocked grain boundaries. If that is the case, it is suggested that the latter feature is more beneficial for creep resistance in XD TiAl alloys with relatively fine grains.     

The effect of thermal exposure on microstructural stability and creep resistance of a two-Phase TiAl/Ti3Al lamellar alloy

During annealing of a two-phase TiAl/Ti₃Al lamellar alloy at 1273 and 1323 K, the lamellar microstructure evolves into a coarse, globular microstructure. For short annealing times (less than about 1000 hours), microstructural evolution occurs predominantly by intrapacket termination migration coarsening. For longer annealing times, cylinderization and conventional Ostwald ripening coarsening mechanisms are observed. The activation energy for the rate-controlling diffusion process governing intrapacket termination migration coarsening of the lamellar microstructure was determined to be 215 kJ/mol. Compression creep tests reveal that the minimum creep rate and primary creep strain of the lamellar alloy increase with increasing prior annealing time. Furthermore, in contrast to the lamellar microstructure, the globular microstructure is not susceptible to deformation-induced spheroidization during compression creep testing. Modeling demonstrates that the increase of the minimum creep rate and primary creep strain as a consequence of annealing of the lamellar alloy can be accounted for by consideration of two factors: the decrease in the work-hardening rate of the lamellar alloy in response to the overall decrease in interphase interfacial area and the decreased mechanical strengthening effect associated with transformation from a lamellar to a globular microstructure. Formerly Graduate Student, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Virginia     

The effect of penultimate grain size on rolling texture in cu-Sn alloys

The effect of penultimate grain size on the texture of Cu-Sn alloys has been investigated using the modulus method. It was observed that in alloys which exhibited the brass-type texture, the large grained specimens yielded a smaller proportion of textured material than those which were fine grained. In alloys which exhibited transition textures, however, the larger grain size specimens exhibited a greater amount of material residing in the brass-type components. As might be expected, increasing the rolling reduction diminished the effect of penultimate grain size upon rolling. The 50:50 texture transition for 971/2 pct reduction occurred at 0.55 at. pct Sn. Unlike Cu-Zn and Cu-Al alloys, the percentage of brass-type texture reached a maximum at 1.8 at. pct Sn and then decreased for tin contents up to 5.06 at. pct. A self-consistent explanation, based on the “dislocation interaction” hypothesis, has been offered to account for the experimental observations. The present results indicate that the twinning processper se, can actually be detrimental to, rather than promote the formation of the brass-type texture in Cu-Sn alloys.     

淬火/回火热处理对TiAl基合金晶粒细化的影响

研究了淬火/回火热处理中淬火温度和回火时间对Ti48Al2Cr0.5Mo合金晶粒细化的影响。研究结果表明:一定的淬火/回火热处理能将粒径约为1 000 μm的铸态组织细化成为18～30 μm的均匀双态组织。TiAl基合金的细化效果与淬火阶段的加热温度密切相关,温度升高,得到的块状组织较细,羽毛状组织体积分数减少。在两相区回火时,高温淬火组织的回火组织较细,而随时间的延长晶粒长大,但不明显。此外,从理论上探讨了淬火/回火工艺细化TiAl基合金显微组织的机理。     

The relationship between grain size and the surface roughening behavior of Al-Mg alloys

The inhomogeneous surface deformation generated during metal forming presents significant challenges to the use of high-strength, lightweight alloys in automotive applications through the initiation of strain localizations that produce both tearing during metal forming and increased friction between mating die surfaces. Thus, a generic understanding of the relationships between plastic strain, grain size, and deformation-induced roughness at the free surface is needed before forming models can be fully developed to accurately predict the behavior and, ultimately, the changes in the friction within the dies. This research examines the roughening behavior of a solid solution strengthened, commercial Al-Mg alloy. The results of this evaluation indicate that the standard roughness measures increase with uniaxial plastic strain in a manner that can be represented by a simple linear estimate. The results also demonstrate that the roughening rate (dR _a/dɛ _pl) is dependent on the grain size in this alloy, and the relationship between the roughening rate and grain size also appears to be linear for the range of grain sizes included in this evaluation. However, examinations of the roughened surfaces reflect that the roughening process is a highly complex combination of mechanisms and it is strongly influenced by grain size. As a result, representing the complex changes that occur during roughening of a free surface by plastic deformation with a single number calculated from profilometry scans may be too coarse of a measure to fully describe these changes when modeling roughness-dependent behavior or properties.     

The role of dislocations in the flow stress grain size relationships

Calculations involving pile ups of dislocations, both analytical and numerical, using either discrete dislocations or continuous distribution of dislocations of infinitesimal Burgers vectors, are reviewed in the light of their effects on the relation between yield or flow stress and grain size. The limitations of the pileup models are discussed and some nonpileup theories of yielding are critically reviewed also. More critical experiments are still needed to reveal the fundamental mechanicm of yielding.     

Nanostructured Ni-Co alloys with tailorable grain size and twin density

We present an experimental approach to systematically produce nanostructures with various grain sizes and twin densities in the Ni-Co binary system. Using electrodeposition with various applied current densities and organic additive contents in the deposition bath, we synthesize nanostructured fcc and hcp solid solutions with a range of compositions. Due to the low stacking fault energy (SFE) of these alloys, growth twins are readily formed during deposition, and by adjusting the deposition conditions, a range of twin boundary densities is possible. The resulting nanostructured alloys cannot be described by a single characteristic length scale, but instead must be characterized in terms of (1) a true grain size pertaining to general high-angle grain boundaries and (2) an effective grain size that incorporates twin boundaries. Analysis of Hall-Petch strength scaling for these materials is complicated by their dual length scales, but the hardness trends found in Ni-80Co are found to be roughly in line with those seen in pure nanocrystalline nickel.     

The role of grain size and strain in work hardening and texture development

Polycrystalline copper (99.999 pct) having four different grain sizes (from 4 to 220 μm) was strained in tension at room temperature to true plastic strains of 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, and 0.30. The initial texture of the materials was determined by neutron diffraction, as were the deformation textures. Both inverse pole figures and calculated TaylorM factors were then derived from the data. In general, it was observed that the texture strengthens at increasing strain and that the effect of grain size on this development is not very pronounced. The measured change in the volume concentration of the (111) texture component was compared to that obtained from a model simulation, and in general, the experiments and the simulations agreed well. The effect on the flow stress of the initial texture, and on the texture which develops during straining, could be accounted for on the basis of TaylorM factors calculated from the experimental results, and it was found that there is an effect of texture on the flow stress. The flow stress at strains above yield, expressed as a modified Hall-Petch relationship, was not greatly affected by corrections toM induced by strain and grain size.     

Effect of melt spinning on grain size and texture in Ni-Mo alloys

Chill block melt spun ribbons of nickel molybdenum alloys with molybdenum contents of 8 to 41.8 wt pct Mo have been examined for their microstructure and texture dependence on processing conditions. Linear features observed in grains solidified with a planar liquid-solid interface at the quench side of the ribbons have been identified to be due to the twins on (111),, plane formed during solidification. Grain size variation with the wheel surface speed and the alloy composition has been studied. Crystallographic texture on quench side and free surface side of the ribbons has been investigated.     

应变速率对全层状TiAl基合金室温拉伸性能的影响

以Ti-47Al-2Cr(摩尔分数,％)合金为对象,研究了应变速率对不同晶团尺寸的全层状TiAl基合金室温拉伸性能的影响.结果表明,全层状TiAl基合金的室温强度随应变速率的加快而提高,低延性全层状TiAl基合金的室温延伸率对应变速率不敏感,而高延性全层状TiAl基合金的室温延伸率对应变速率敏感,并随应变速率的加快而提高.     

Fatigue and fracture behavior of a fine-grained lamellar TiAl alloy

The fatigue and fracture resistance of a TiAl alloy, Ti-47Al-2Nb-2Cr, with 0.2 at. pct boron addition was studied by performing tensile, fracture toughness, and fatigue crack growth tests. The material was heat treated to exhibit a fine-grained, fully lamellar microstructure with approximately 150-μm grain size and 1-μm lamellae spacing. Conventional tensile tests were conducted as a function of temperature to define the brittle-to-ductile transition temperature (BDTT), while fracture and fatigue tests were performed at 25 °C and 815 °C. Fracture toughness tests were performed inside a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with a high-temperature loading stage, as well as using ASTM standard techniques. Fatigue crack growth of large and small cracks was studied in air using conventional methods and by testing inside the SEM. Fatigue and fracture mechanisms in the fine-grained, fully lamellar microstructure were identified and correlated with the corresponding properties. The results showed that the lamellar TiAl alloy exhibited moderate fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth resistance, despite low tensile ductility. The sources of ductility, fracture toughness, and fatigue resistance were identified and related to pertinent microstructural variables.     

Investigation of microstructural coarsening in Sn-Pb alloys

The central theme of this work is to investigate the kinetics of microstructural evolution at high volume fractions of the dispersed phase in a solid-liquid mixture. Until recently, the kinetics of coarsening in the high volume fraction range was not clearly established. A recent study focused on high volume fractions (V _v >0.90) revealed that the temporal scaling laws that describe phase coarsening change from the conventional cube root of time behavior to a fourth-power relationship. This work probes the variation of the temporal exponent with volume fraction of the dispersed phase (V _v >-0.60). An overview of the fundamentals of the physics involved in diffusion-limited coarsening is presented. Also explained is the relevance of phase coarsening in various applications. A succinct review of the attempts to understand the various parameters involved in coarsening is provided, with the Sn-Pb system chosen for this study for reasons apart from its importance as a commercial solder alloy system. Details of the experimental procedures are described, and, following this, the results are outlined and the underlying mechanisms discussed. The findings reveal that the temporal exponent changes as the volume fraction of the dispersed phase changes.     

The microstructure of selected annealed vanadium-base alloys

The microstructures of three vanadium-base alloys in the referenced annealed state were investigated by analytical transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction. The most common precipitates in all three alloys were particles of fcc TiN_1−x−yC_xO_y. In the alloy V-15Cr-5Ti, particles of type M₂₃C₆ were also found. Additional phases in the alloys V-3Ti-1Si and V-20Ti include Ti_1.7P- and Ti₈S₃-type precipitates. Precise lattice parameters of the matrices and the titanium carbonitrides were also measured. Weight percentages of the combined precipitates were determinedvia electrolytic extraction procedures.     

高能球磨工艺对WO3晶粒尺寸的影响

用X射线衍射和透射电镜，研究了高能球磨工艺对WO3-CO2O3-C混合粉末中WO3晶粒尺寸的影响。结果表明：球磨时间增长、球磨转速提高和装料比的加大都可有效地降低反应物晶粒尺寸，而且当球磨到一定时间后，WO3和C可以达到纳米级。适宜的制备纳米级WO3-C-CO2O3混合粉的球磨工艺参数应为：球磨筒转速400r／min，球磨时间4～8h，球料比40：1～60：1。