Low-Density Steels: Complex Metallurgy for Automotive Applications

The current aim in the development of third-generation steels for lightweighting automotive applications is to increase strength keeping at least the same formability as current steel concepts. In this philosophy, an optimal concept would be one that brings, in addition, a lower density. For this purpose, low-density steels have been designed with important aluminum additions obtaining density reductions of 8–10% or higher in comparison with low-carbon steels. At the levels required for lightweighting, aluminum introduces complex phenomena in steels. Here, some of the effects of aluminum in phase stability, CALPHAD-type modeling, and microstructure development are described, the latter in relation with mechanical properties. Finally, the potential of two families of lightweight steels for automotive applications is assessed by comparison with a steel currently present in automotive structures.     

Comparative Evaluation of Properties of Thin-Sheet Hardenable Steels

The BH-effect is studied for various grades of automotive sheet steels 08Yu, 08YuP, 08YuPR, and 08GSYuT. The 08YuP and 08YuPR steels with microscopic additives of phosphorus are shown to be more advantageous in this respect than the carbon steel 08Yu and the alloy steel 08GSYuT. A promising way for raising the efficiency of automotive sheet steels is suggested.     

河钢唐钢高强汽车板生产线技术集成与实践

河钢集团唐钢公司高强汽车板项目生产设备、工艺技术及智能制造均处于国际领先水平。该项目工程采用了多项新工艺、新技术、新装备,在投产的短短2年时间内,开发出了高档汽车板、家电板,应用于国内知名汽车主机厂、家电厂,在设计理念、建设投资、节能环保、智能制造等方面取得了一系列的创新成果。     

IFHTSE Global 21: heat treatment and surface engineering in the twenty-first century Part 7 – Thermal processing and past,present and future development of automotive sheet steels

Abstract

The alloying, thermal processing, microstructure and properties that have resulted in a remarkable number of new automotive sheet steels developed and applied over the past several decades are surveyed. The powerful forces that have driven the development of new sheet steels, and the coupling of mechanical design, professional society promotion and international technical conferences that have established an extensive knowledge base for present and future developments, are reviewed. Sheet steels, because of differences in chemistries, processing and mechanical requirements from those applied to bar, forged and tool steels, are not typically considered in IFHTSE programming, but the factors that have led to the dynamic changes in automotive sheet steels, and the resulting knowledge base related to heat treatment and thermal processing, deserve to be considered in the context of Global 21.     

Advanced sheet steels for automotive applications

Vacuum degassing has recently been used by sheet steel producers to improve their products’ ductility and strength. Carbon contents can be reduced by an order of magnitude to less than 0.0030 wt.%. Through careful alloying and processing, a range of new steel products has been developed for the automotive industry. These products include interstitial-free, deep-drawing-quality steels; formable, high-strength, interstitial-free steels; and bake-hardenable steels. This article summarizes the chemistry and processing needed to produce these products.     

新一代高强塑性钢的开发与应用

为满足汽车、建筑、能源等工业对材料强度级别和使用性能不断提高的要求,世界钢铁业正在开发新一代高强塑性钢。基于先进高强度钢AHSS汽车板,高强度抗震建筑用钢和高等级管线钢的开发,讨论了新一代高强塑性钢的主要技术特征,包括使用性能（成形性、抗冲撞能力、抗震性能、抗皱能力）超载下的形变能力,对塑性指标"（均匀延伸率、n值、屈强比）的要求、复相组织与残余奥氏体的强塑化机理、关键工艺技术以及新产品新技术的发展方向,同时考虑到对强韧性和焊接性能的要求,讨论了热变形奥氏体动力学模型、高韧性焊接热影响区HAZ的细化韧化以及硫含量的影响与控制。     

Formability Investigations of High-Strength Dual-Phase Steels

Car manufacturing is always regarded as the key industry behind sheet metal forming, and thus, the requirements of and developments in car manufacturing play a decisive role in the development of sheet metal forming. The automotive industry is faced with contradictory demands and requirements: better performance with lower consumption and less harmful emissions, more safety and comfort; these are extremely difficult to supply simultaneously with conventional materials and conventional manufacturing processes. The fulfillment of these often contradictory requirements is one of the main driving forces in the automotive industry and thus in the material and process developments in sheet metal forming, as well. In recent years, significant developments can be observed in the application of high-strength steels. In this respect, the application of various dual-phase steels is one of the best examples. However, the application of these highstrength steels often leads to formability and manufacturing problems. One formability problem is the springback occurring after sheet metal forming. In the current research, we have dealt mainly with advanced high-strength steels, primarily with dual-phase steels. When applying them, the springback phenomenon is one of the most critical issues. To reduce the tremendous amount of experimental work needed, we also applied numerical simulation using isotropic–kinematic hardening rules. The isotropic–kinematic hardening behavior of a given material in the applied Auto Form numerical package may be characterized with three independent material parameters c, v and K(a detailed explanation of their meaning will be given in the main part of this paper). However, we found that the material data included in simulation packages for these new high-strength steels are not fully adequate. For the determination of more reliable material parameters and to achieve better simulation results, a new testing device was developed. Numerical simulations were performed using the material parameters determined by the new device to show the sensitivity of springback behavior to these material parameters.     

Stability of aisi alloy steels

Typical AISI alloy steels which are used extensively in the automotive industry were investigated. These steels were studied in order to provide a comparison with the steels now used for piping and elevated temperature service. The results indicate that the Cr-Mo steels now employed for piping are satisfactory in comparison with the AISI alloy steels. The steels were exposed at 900° and 1050° and, in several instances, 1200°F. They were either normalized or annealed before exposure and, in general, two carbon levels were investigated. The microstructure was observed after 34,000 hr exposure. Tensile and creep rupture properties were determined after 10,000 hr exposure. Graphite was observed in the Ni-Mo steels, but not in the chromium bearing steels, which were the most structurally stable of the AISI steels investigated. A slight decrease in tensile strength in the various steels was observed after exposure. The creep rupture strength of the nickel steels was similar to plain carbon steels, but the steels containing molybdenum or vanadium had a higher creep rupture strength.     

Role of Dilatometrical Measurements in the Development of Multiphase Steels

Possibilities of means of dilatometry in connection with production of multiphase (DP- and TRIP-) steels were examined in detail. These steels are characterized by an excellent combination of high strength and good press formability,which are essentially important in the automotive industry. Transformation processes, cooling rates, holding temperatures,composition and technological parameters play a very important role in formation of applicable microstructure of multiphase steels. Dilatometrical experiments were carried out to study the processes of intercritical annealing and hot rolling of several DP- and TRIP-steels.     

Cold-rolled,high-strength sheet steels for auto applications

Several groups of cold-rolled, high-strength sheet steels have been developed to optimize the required strength and formability levels for automotive applications. Multiphase steels offer new opportunities where high-strength levels are demanded. The future in steel development will be determined by the physical modeling of properties and by adapting new process routes such as thin slab casting and in-line rolling. In this article, developments in traditional strengthening concepts (e.g., microalloying and substitutional hardening with phosphorus) and more recently developed concepts (e.g., bake hardening and strengthening of interstitial-free steels) are reviewed.     

Microstructural Developments and Tensile Properties of Lean Fe-Mn-Al-C Lightweight Steels

Concepts of Fe-Al-Mn-C-based lightweight steels are fairly simple, but primary metallurgical issues are complicated. In this study, recent studies on lean-composition lightweight steels were reviewed, summarized, and emphasized by their microstructural development and mechanical properties. The lightweight steels containing a low-density element of Al were designed by thermodynamic calculation and were manufactured by conventional industrial processes. Their microstructures consisted of various secondary phases as κ-carbide, martensite, and austenite in the ferrite matrix according to manufacturing and annealing procedures. The solidification microstructure containing segregations of C, Mn, and Al produced a banded structure during the hot rolling. The (ferrite + austenite) duplex microstructure was formed after the annealing, and the austenite was retained at room temperature. It was because the thermal stability of austenite nucleated from fine κ-carbide was quite high due to fine grain size of austenite. Because these lightweight steels have outstanding properties of strength and ductility as well as reduced density, they give a promise for automotive applications requiring excellent properties.     

Hot cracking investigation during laser welding of high-strength steels with multi-scale modelling approach

Hot cracking during laser welding of advanced high-strength steels is reported to be a serious problem by automotive manufacturers. In this work, hot cracking susceptibilities of transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) and dual-phase (DP) steels are studied based on a multi-scale modelling approach. Transient temperatures measured from welding experiments are used to validate a finite element (FE) model. The temperature, thermal gradient and cooling rate in the weld fusion zone are extracted from the FE model and pre-defined as boundary conditions to a phase field model. The welding-induced microstructural evolution is simulated considering thermodynamic and mobility data. Results show that, compared to the DP steel, the TRIP steel has a broader solidification range, a greater pressure drop at the inter-dendritic regions, and an increased phosphorus segregation at the grain boundaries; all these make this steel more susceptible for hot cracking.     

Copper brazing response of some advanced high strength steel grades

Sheet steels are commonly used in automotive powertrain applications wherein formed and assembled components undergo a copper brazing operation as part of the manufacturing process. For high performance applications including transmission pump housings and turbines, specially processed microalloyed steels have been developed and specified in order to develop the desired mechanical properties after exposure to brazing temperatures of ～1100 °C. New families of advanced high strength steel (AHSS) sheet are currently being developed and implemented. These are typified by increased alloy levels and exhibit unique property combinations that are particularly suited to auto body applications requiring the dual characteristics of high formability and high strength. Here it is considered that such grades may also be suited to powertrain components requiring high initial formability coupled with high final strength after copper brazing. That is, transformation strengthening during cooling after brazing is envisioned as a potential strengthening mechanism available with these new steels. In this work, initial screening results are reported to elucidate the response of some experimental AHSS to a simulated copper brazing operation during which the steels are taken into the austenitic temperature range and subsequently cooled at moderate rates to ambient conditions.     

Corrosion behaviour of experimental copper–antimony–molybdenum carbon steels in industrial and marine atmospheres and in a sulphuric acid aqueous solution

Low alloyed carbon steels are used in several applications as in automotive, home appliances and civil industries. Sb-bearing steels have been developed to withstand acid condensation, mainly to exhibit corrosion resistance to sulphuric acid aqueous solutions. This work is aimed at studying the corrosion resistance of three experimental low alloyed carbon steels with additions of copper, antimony and molybdenum using the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in a sulphuric acid aqueous solution, and field tests in industrial and marine atmospheres. The field tests showed the mass loss of antimony–molybdenum carbon steels was higher compared to that of other steels. The alloyed carbon steels with copper and antimony additions showed the highest atmospheric corrosion resistance evaluated by using field tests in industrial and marine environments. The molybdenum-bearing steels showed the highest corrosion resistance in a sulphuric acid solution, measured by using the EIS.     

Understanding the factors controlling the interfacial failure strength of advanced high-strength steel resistance spot welds: hardness vs. fracture toughness

The failure of advanced high-strength steels’ spot welds is a critical issue for automotive crashworthiness. This paper deals with understanding the underlying factors of the tensile-shear strength of automotive steels’ resistance spot welds during interfacial failure. It was found that the ratio of the fracture toughness to the hardness of the fusion zone is the critical factor governing the interfacial failure mechanism: ductile shear failure (controlled by the fusion zone hardness) vs. cleavage crack propagation (controlled by the fracture toughness). This clarification could pave the way for more accurate modelling of interfacial failure of advanced steel resistance spot welds and shed light on the design of proper post-weld heat treatment for improving the weld mechanical performance.     

Numerical simulation of spot welding for galvanised sheet steels

Abstract

Galvanised sheet steels are now widely used to be the substrate for body in white (BIW) construction in the automotive industry. Weldability of galvanised sheet steels much worsened compared to spot welding of low carbon steels. The present paper develops a 2D axisymmetric model and employs an incremental coupled thermal–electrical–mechanical analysis to predict the nugget development during resistance spot welding (RSW) of galvanised sheet steels. Temperature dependent contact resistance for faying surfaces was determined to take into account of the influence of zinc coat for spot welding galvanised sheet steels. The effect of dynamic contact radii on temperature distribution was studied and compared with results under constant contact area assumption. The predicted nugget shape and size agreed well with the experimental data. Higher current and longer welding time should be applied for galvanised sheet steels compared to low carbon steel spot welding. The proposed model can be applied to predict weld quality and choose optimal welding conditions for spot welding galvanised sheet steels.     

Bead on plate laser brazing of dual phase steel with two copper based consumables

Abstract

High strength steels with good formability properties have been developed in recent years, especially for the automotive industry. Joining these metals is however increasingly difficult as the fusion joining processes destroy the carefully constructed microstructure of the steels, resulting in less favourable mechanical properties in and around the joint. A possible solution to this problem is the use of joining processes that require less heat input; laser brazing is one such process. In this work, the brazability of a dual phase steel sheet has been investigated by means of bead on plate brazes produced with two consumables, CuSi3 and CuAl8. Two brazability diagrams are reported and high speed video images are used to explain the differences in operating conditions for these two consumables. Temperature measurements in the steel provide an indication about the temperatures reached during the joining process, which in turn explain the changes observed in the hardness of the steel.     

高强钢材料性能对汽车零件扭曲回弹的影响

高强度钢板材料冲压性能的波动对冲压成形后零件精度的影响较大,主要表现在成形性能不稳定和回弹波动较大。文章侧重材料性能波动对冲压件扭曲回弹的影响,结合某汽车车身高强钢零件的冲压结果,借助有限元仿真工具,比较实验与仿真结果,在结果基本一致的基础上,研究高强度钢板的屈服强度、应变硬化指数、摩擦系数及板料厚度波动对该零件扭曲回弹影响规律。应用科学实验设计方法,考察了主要因素的影响规律,得到高强钢材料性能参数影响板料扭曲回弹的相关结论,从降低回弹波动及扭曲对制造精度的影响出发,提出了材料性能参数优化选取原则。     

Review on δ-Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steels with Low Density: The Concept and Current Progress

Novel alloys with high aluminum addition, so-called δ-transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP), have been developed recently for the third generation of advanced high strength steels for automotive applications, which are promising owing to the potential weldability as well as the combination of strength and ductility. In addition, the high aluminum addition results in a density reduction of approximately 5% in these δ-TRIP alloys without sacrificing the Young’s modulus in uniaxial tensile tests. The origin of δ-TRIP concept is introduced first with a review of the published work on δ-TRIP alloys. This review will include methodology for retention of δ-ferrite in casting, rolling and welding conditions, microstructure evolution by austempering, as well as microstructures–properties relationship involving the roles of blocky and lath retained austenite. In addition, currently unresolved problems will be discussed regarding the fundamentals of materials design, automotive application, and industrial manufacturing.     

Springback prediction of TWIP automotive sheets

In an effort to reduce the weight of vehicles, automotive companies are replacing conventional steel parts with light weight alloys and/or with advanced high strength steels (AHSS) such as dual-phase (DP), twinning induced plasticity (TWIP), and transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels. The main objective of this work is to experimentally and numerically evaluate the macro-performance of the automotive TWIP sheet in conjunction with springback. In order to characterize the mechanical properties, simple tension and tension-compression tests were performed to determine anisotropic properties, as well as the Bauschinger, transient, and permanent softening behaviors during reverse loading. For numerical simulations, the anisotropic yield function Yld2000-2d was utilized along with the combined isotropic-kinematic hardening law based on the modified Chaboche model. Springback verification was performed for the unconstrained cylindrical bending and 2D draw bending tests.