Multiple spatial correspondence effects on dual-task performance.

Three dual-task experiments were conducted to examine whether the underadditive interaction of the Simon effect and stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) on Task 2 performance is due to decay. The experiments tested whether the reverse Simon effect obtained with an incompatible stimulus–response (S-R) mapping would show an overadditive interaction with SOA, as predicted by R. De Jong, C.-C. Liang, and E. Lauber's (1994) dual-process model. Tone or letter identification tasks with vocal or keypress responses were used as Task 1. Task 2 was keypresses to arrow direction (or letter identity in Experiment 1). For all experiments, the normal Simon effect showed an underadditive interaction with SOA, but the reverse Simon effect did not show an overadditive interaction. The results imply that the dual-process model is not applicable to the dual-task context. Multiple correspondence effects across tasks implicate an explanation in terms of automatic S-R translation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and motivational processes underlying coping flexibility: A dual-process model.

Discriminative facility was proposed as a cognitive process and need for closure was proposed as a motivational process underlying coping flexibility. The dual-process model posits that need for closure influences discriminative facility, which in turn modifies coping flexibility and psychological adjustment. In Study 1, results of structural equation modeling provided support for the dual-process model. This model was further examined using experimental methods (Study 2) and a prospective design (Study 3). Consistent with the dual-process model, results from all 3 studies showed that participants who were more motivated to seek alternative coping strategies tended to encode stressful situations in a more differentiated way. These individuals used a greater variety of strategies to fit different situational demands and were better adjusted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral and emotional regulation and adolescent substance use problems: A test of moderation effects in a dual-process model.

In a structural model, we tested how relations of predictors to level of adolescent substance use (tobacco, alcohol, marijuana), and to substance-related impaired-control and behavior problems, are moderated by good self-control and poor regulation in behavioral and emotional domains. The participants were a sample of 1,116 public high-school students. In a multiple-group analysis for good self-control, the paths from negative life events to substance use level and from level to behavior problems were lower among persons scoring higher on good behavioral self-control. In a multiple-group analysis for poor regulation, the paths from negative life events and peer use to level of substance use were greater among persons scoring higher on poor behavioral (but not emotional) regulation; an inverse path from academic competence to level was greater among persons scoring higher on both aspects of poor regulation. Paths from level to impaired-control and behavior problems were greater among persons scoring higher on both poor behavioral and poor emotional regulation. Theoretical implications concerning the role of behavioral and emotional regulation in moderation effects are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of working memory in spatial S-R correspondence effects.

This study investigates the impact of working memory (WM) load on response conflicts arising from spatial (non) correspondence between irrelevant stimulus location and response location (Simon effect). The dominant view attributes the Simon effect to automatic processes of location-based response priming. The automaticity view predicts insensitivity of the Simon effect to manipulations of processing load. Four experiments investigated the role of spatial and verbal WM in horizontal and vertical Simon tasks by using a dual-task approach. Participants maintained different amounts of spatial or verbal information in WM while performing a horizontal or vertical Simon task. Results showed that high load generally decreased, and sometimes eliminated, the Simon effect. It is interesting to note that spatial load had a larger impact than verbal load on the horizontal Simon effect, whereas verbal load had a larger impact than spatial load on the vertical Simon effect. The results highlight the role of WM as the perception-action interface in choice-response tasks. Moreover, the results suggest spatial coding of horizontal stimulus-response (S-R) tasks, and verbal coding of vertical S-R tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A dual-process model of the alcohol–behavior link for social drinking.

A dual-process model of the alcohol–behavior link is presented, synthesizing 2 of the major social–cognitive approaches: expectancy and myopia theories. Substantial evidence has accrued to support both of these models, and recent neurocognitive models of the effects of alcohol on thought and behavior have provided evidence to support both as well. While proponents of these theories have not suggested that they are mutually exclusive views on how alcohol affects behavior, attempts to synthesize the 2 have been conspicuously absent. The dual-process model presented suggests that the alcohol–behavior link is better reconceptualized as involving a “preconsumption” and a “consumption” phase. This is achieved in the context of contemporary models of automaticity in social behavior, emphasizing the commonality of both controlled and automatic processes in drinking-related behavior. It is argued that a complete understanding of the alcohol–behavior link requires an appreciation of the ways in which the mind may become “intoxicated” even in the absence of alcohol consumption. Suggestions for further research in this area, testing the present dual-process model of the alcohol–behavior link, are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensional overlap: Cognitive basis for stimulus-response compatibility--A model and taxonomy.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 99(1) of Psychological Review (see record 2008-10517-001). In this article, erroneous data were included in Figure 2. The figure and original caption are corrected in the erratum.] The classic problem of stimulus–response (S–R) compatibility (SRC) is addressed. A cognitive model is proposed that views the stimulus and response sets in S–R ensembles as categories with dimensions that may or may not overlap. If they do overlap, the task may be compatible or incompatible, depending on the assigned S–R mapping. If they do not overlap, the task is noncompatible regardless of the assigned mapping. The overlapping dimensions may be relevant or not. The model provides a systematic account of SRC effects, a taxonomy of simple performance tasks that were hitherto thought to be unrelated, and suggestive parallels between these tasks and the experimental paradigms that have traditionally been used to study attentional, controlled, and automatic processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inevitability and automaticity: A response to Fisk.

Responds to the comments of A. D. Fisk (see record 1986-16289-001) on the present authors' (see record 1985-27168-001) work on automatic processing of fundamental information. The present authors use the term automaticity as a process by which some attributes of an attended to stimulus are encoded into memory. It is suggested that Fisk's view of automaticity is derived from the study of automatic search mechanisms, particularly as they slowly develop in multiple frame visual search tasks; therefore, several methodological problems that Fisk addresses do not fit the concerns of the present authors or are irrelevant to them. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two routes or one in reading aloud? A connectionist dual-process model.

A connectionist study of word reading is described that emphasizes the computational demands of the spelling–sound mapping in determining the properties of the reading system. It is shown that the phonological assembly process can be implemented by a two-layer network, which easily extracts the regularities in the spelling–sound mapping for English from training data containing many exception words. It is argued that productive knowledge about spelling–sound relationships is more easily acquired and used if it is separated from case-specific knowledge of the pronunciation of known words. It is then shown how the interaction of assembled and retrieved phonologies can account for the combined effects of frequency and regularity–consistency and for the reading performance of dyslexic patients. It is concluded that the organization of the reading system reflects the demands of the task and that the pronunciations of nonwords and exception words are computed by different processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Persistence of stimulus-response compatibility effects with extended practice.

The influence of extended practice on stimulus–response (S–R) compatibility effects was investigated. Three experiments, each extending over a period of 8 sessions, were conducted. The nature and degree of compatibility were manipulated across experiments. In all experiments, a persistent effect of S–R compatibility on reaction times (RTs) was observed. Thus, the lower bound for RTs appears to be less for compatible assignments than for incompatible assignments. This persistence of S–R compatibility indicates that the initial codings used to perform a novel task continue to exert an influence on later performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Receiver-operating characteristics in recognition memory: Evidence for a dual-process model.

Evidence is presented that recognition judgments are based on an assessment of familiarity, as is described by signal detection theory, but that a separate recollection process also contributes to performance. In 3 receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) experiments, the process dissociation procedure was used to examine the contribution of these processes to recognition memory. In Exps 1 and 2, reducing the length of the study list increased the intercept (d') but decreased the slope of the ROC and increased the probability of recollection but left familiarity relatively unaffected. In Exp 3, increasing study time increased the intercept but left the slope of the ROC unaffected and increased both recollection and familiarity. In all 3 experiments, judgments based on familiarity produced a symmetrical ROC (slope?=?1), but recollection introduced a skew such that the slope of the ROC decreased. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A dual-process model of defense against conscious and unconscious death-related thoughts: An extension of terror management theory.

Distinct defensive processes are activated by conscious and nonconscious but accessible thoughts of death. Proximal defenses, which entail suppressing death-related thoughts or pushing the problem of death into the distant future by denying one's vulnerability, are rational, threat-focused, and activated when thoughts of death are in current focal attention. Distal terror management defenses, which entail maintaining self-esteem and faith in one's cultural worldview, function to control the potential for anxiety that results from knowing that death is inevitable. These defenses are experiential, are not related to the problem of death in any semantic or logical way, and are increasingly activated as the accessibility of death-related thoughts increases, up to the point at which such thoughts enter consciousness and proximal threat-focused defenses are initiated. Experimental evidence for this analysis is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual automaticity in recognition memory: Levels-of-processing effects on familiarity.

Examined the effect of level of processing (LP) on recognition memory using 2 response-signal delays (RSD; 500 and 1500 msec). In Exp 1, LP (semantic or nonsemantic) and RSD were manipulated between 24 college students. In Exp 2, orienting task (pleasantness rating or letter judgment) and RSD were manipulated among 32 Ss. In Exp 3, study orientation and test instructions (inclusion or exclusion) were within-S factors, and RSD was a between-S factor. 32 Ss were included in Exp 3. In Exp 1, a modality effect was found for fast responses. The LP was reliable at both points in time. In Exp 2, fast responses were associated with significantly more "false-alarms" to words encoded semantically than those encoded nonsemantically. In Exp 3, both recollection and familiarity estimates were elevated by prior conceptual processing. Estimates of recollection were affected by RSD. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A dual-process account of auditory change detection.

Listeners can be “deaf” to a substantial change in a scene comprising multiple auditory objects unless their attention has been directed to the changed object. It is unclear whether auditory change detection relies on identification of the objects in pre- and post-change scenes. We compared the rates at which listeners correctly identify changed objects with those predicted by change-detection models based on signal detection theory (SDT) and high-threshold theory (HTT). Detected changes were not identified as accurately as predicted by models based on either theory, suggesting that some changes are detected by a process that does not support change identification. Undetected changes were identified as accurately as predicted by the HTT model but much less accurately than predicted by the SDT models. The process underlying change detection was investigated further by determining receiver-operating characteristics (ROCs). ROCs did not conform to those predicted by either a SDT or a HTT model but were well modeled by a dual-process that incorporated HTT and SDT components. The dual-process model also accurately predicted the rates at which detected and undetected changes were correctly identified. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotizability and automaticity: Toward a parallel distributed processing model of hypnotic responding.

Tested a hypothesis from parallel distributed processing theory that highly hypnotizable Ss have greater connection strengths along verbal pathways and would show greater Stroop effects than low hypnotizable Ss. Using the paradigm from J. Cheesman and P. M. Merikle (see record 1989-03722-001) which varied cue visibility and probability, automatic and strategic effects on Stroop performance were assessed. Compared with 9 low and 9 moderately hypnotizable Ss, 9 highly hypnotizable ones showed significantly greater Stroop effects for both visible- and degraded-word trials. No strategic differences emerged for the 3 hypnotizability groups. These findings support the contention that highly hypnotizable persons have stronger verbal connection strengths than their moderately and low susceptible counterparts, and they may account for highly hypnotizable persons' propensity to disregard personal attributions and label their responses in hypnosis as being involuntary. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence on Simon and SNARC effects of a nonspatial stimulus-response mapping: Between-task logical recoding.

In 4 experiments, we intermixed trials in which the stimulus color was relevant with trials where participants had to judge the stimulus shape or parity and found that the logical-recoding rule (Hedge & Marsh, 1975) applied to the relevant dimension in a task can generalize to the irrelevant dimension of the other task. The mapping assigned to participants in color-relevant trials modulated the Simon and SNARC (spatial-numerical association of response codes) effects (Simon & Small, 1969; Dehaene, Bossini, & Giraux, 1993) observed in shape- and parity-relevant trials. Standard effects were obtained when color-relevant trials required participants to respond by pressing a key of the same color as the stimulus, whereas an alternate-color mapping caused either the disappearance or reversal of the effects. The present results demonstrate that for between-task transfer effects to occur the critical dimensions in the two alternative tasks do not have to share the same representation nor need the stimuli of the two tasks have any feature in common. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contribution of recollection and familiarity to recognition and source-memory judgments: A formal dual-process model and an analysis of receiver operating characterstics.

A formal dual-process model that assumes that memory judgments can be based on a threshold recollection process and a signal-detection-based familiarity process is proposed to account for both recognition and source-memory performance. The model was tested in 4 experiments by examining recognition and source-memory receiver operating characteristics (ROCs). In agreement with the predictions of the model, recognition and source memory dissociated in certain conditions. Recognition ROCs were curvilinear in probability space and relatively linear in z-space, as expected if recollection and familiarity contributed to performance. In contrast, source ROCs typically were linear and exhibited a pronounced U-shaped curve in z-space, as expected if performance primarily relied on recollection. However, in conditions in which familiarity was clearly indicative of an item's source, the source ROC became curvilinear suggesting that participants could use familiarity as a basis for source judgments. Several alternative models, including the unequal-variance signal-detection model, were found to be inconsistent with the ROC data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention effects of moving and stationary single-element and multiple-element precues: limits of automaticity

A multiple-element precue (MEP), in which one unique element defines the actual precue, results in efficient precuing for identification of a target. The time course for identification in this case is similar to that for a central precue, even though it is presented peripherally (Chastain, 1996; Chastain & Cheal, in press). Five experiments were conducted to gain further information on the function of MEPs and to question what advantage prior knowledge of the precue may give. In Experiments 1 and 2, it was shown that for "pop-out" features, accuracy of identification of a target was higher if the precue type was known in advance. In contrast, as shown in Experiments 3, 4, and 5, when the precue was defined by apparent motion, there was no difference in accuracy due to advanced knowledge of the precue. Further, accuracy was considerably better for motion precues than for stationary precues.     

Category-based errors and the accessibility of unbiased spatial memories: A retrieval model.

Studies have consistently shown a spatial memory bias such that a target location is remembered toward the prototypical location of the region to which the target belongs, indicating a blending between the target’s specific information and the generic information of its region. The authors investigated whether people retain a veridical representation of a target location after a delay by determining the locus of the blending (during encoding, delay, or retrieval). To examine accessibility to the original target location, they used a recognition task, which is less demanding than the traditional reproduction procedure. The results showed that participants were able to recognize the original position of a target over their own biased recalled position after both a short (1,500 ms) and a longer (5,000 ms) delay. These findings reveal that spatial memories can be undistorted despite distorted recall responses. Results are discussed in terms of J. Huttenlocher, L. V. Hedges, and S. Duncan’s (1991) category adjustment model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)