Gender differences in self-disclosure to various target persons.

In Exp I, 54 male and 54 female undergraduates reported their willingness to self-disclose about 14 topics to each of 3 same-gender target persons: a stranger, an acquaintance, and an intimate friend. The data show an interaction of S's gender and target person, demonstrating that males are more willing than females to disclose to strangers and acquaintances, but females are more willing than males to disclose to intimates. The results suggest a tendency for men to avoid emotional intimacy with one another. Competition among men and homophobia are offered as explanations for this lack of intimacy among men. A 2nd experiment (69 males, 79 females), which included both same-gender and opposite-gender target persons, replicated the findings of Exp I but did not support the competition or homophobia explanations. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Loneliness, self-disclosure, and interpersonal effectiveness.

Examined the relationship between interpersonal intimacy and measures of loneliness, social skills, and social activity. 150 unmarried female undergraduates were administered the Self-Disclosure Situations Survey; University of California, Los Angeles, Loneliness Scale; Social Introversion scale of the MMPI; and an activity questionnaire. Results reveal that dispositional level of self-disclosure was inversely related to loneliness and interacted with disclosure flexibility: Appropriate medium disclosure across situations was associated with lower levels of loneliness than was inappropriate disclosure. Peer and observer ratings of social skills were positively related to dispositional disclosure but not to disclosure flexibility or level of loneliness. Among lonely Ss there was a trend for disclosure flexibility to be associated with different levels of social activity. Results suggest that lonely individuals have difficulty appropriately revealing personal information in new relationships and nonstructured social situations. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal self-disclosure: Expectancy and situational effects.

96 male undergraduates, selected from a pool of 169 because of their high or low scores on the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire (JSDQ), were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions of specific expectancy, in which they were told that they would find it either easy or difficult to self-disclose to a stranger interviewer, and 1 of 3 conditions of interviewers' behavior (personal, impersonal, or no disclosure). The JSDQ, scored for anticipated self-disclosure but not for recalled self-disclosure, predicted observed performance. The specific expectancy manipulation and the intimacy level of topics also had significant effects on self-disclosure. A 3-way interaction between generalized and specific expectancy and topic intimacy was also found. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On sex differences in self-disclosure during the acquaintance process: The role of anticipated future interaction.

In Exp I, 48 female and 48 male undergraduates who either anticipated or did not anticipate further interaction with a same-sex confederate, alternated with that person in disclosing private information on 4 personal topics. The confederate spoke first on each topic, presenting either highly intimate or nonintimate information in response to all 4 issues. Content analyses revealed that as hypothesized, males became more intimate and emotionally invested in their disclosures when they expected to interact with their partners in the future. By contrast, females showed an unexpected decline in the intimacy and emotional investment of their self-presentations when expecting further interaction with their partners, and they were actually somewhat less self-revealing under this circumstance than were males. Supplementary data suggest that females' reluctance to disclose intimately to a partner with whom they expected further interaction did not stem from problems in their contemporaneous interpersonal relationships with this individual. The avoidance of intimacy and an evaluation hypothesis received support as proposed explanations for the dampening effect of anticipated future interaction on female self-disclosure in a 2nd experiment involving 26 female and 20 male undergraduates. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Loneliness and patterns of self-disclosure.

The 1st study examined the hypothesis that feeling lonely is related to a self-perceived lack of self-disclosure to significant others. 37 male and 38 female undergraduates rated themselves on the UCLA Loneliness Scale and the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire. Analyses showed that for males and females, loneliness was significantly and linearly related to a self-perceived lack of intimate disclosure to opposite-sex friends. For females, loneliness was also associated with a perceived lack of self-disclosure to same-sex friends. The 2nd study investigated the relationship between loneliness and actual disclosure behavior. 24 lonely and 23 nonlonely Ss were paired with nonlonely partners in a structured acquaintanceship exercise. Both opposite-sex and same-sex pairs were included in the design. Postexercise ratings by partners indicated that lonely Ss were less effective than nonlonely Ss in making themselves known. Analysis of the intimacy level in the conversations showed that lonely Ss had significantly different patterns of disclosure than nonlonely Ss. The authors suggest that the self-disclosure style of the lonely person impairs the normal development of social relationships. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-disclosure as a function of state and trait anxiety.

Examined the influence of state and trait anxiety on self-disclosure in 48 male college freshmen rated as debilitative or facilitative test-anxious on the Achievement Anxiety Test. Ss participated in a verbal learning experiment under high and low anxiety conditions; self-disclosure was elicited by a personal information questionnaire. The effectiveness of the manipulations was checked using scores on the Anxiety factor of the Mood Adjective Check List. Ss' responses to the questionnaire items were assessed for breadth or amount of self-disclosure, depth or intimacy of self-disclosure, and positive–negative self-evaluation by content analysis of their statements. Results confirm the hypothesis that individuals experiencing state anxiety disclose less than "normals." Findings are discussed in light of various conceptual approaches to anxiety. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sharing secrets: Disclosure and discretion in dyads and triads.

Explored the impact of group size on sharing secrets to develop a more comprehensive picture of the variables that influenced disclosure patterns. It was hypothesized that Ss would be more willing to disclose intimate information in a dyad than in a triad (V. J. Derlega et al; see record 1979-21044-001). The results of Exp I with 21 undergraduates, which used a role-playing methodology, confirmed the hypothesis. The main effect of group size was observed over a range of roles and items of information. In addition to the main effect, group size interaction effects also indicated that the difference between dyad and triad disclosure rates increased with more intimate items of information and with more intimate roles. These interaction effects suggested that the importance of a closed dyadic boundary depends in part on the expected confidentiality of the interchange. In Exp II with 35 undergraduates, the conversations of groups of acquaintances were recorded and rated for intimacy. As predicted, the conversations of dyads were more intimate than those of triads. Suggestions for understanding the intimate quality of dyads are discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Norms affecting self-disclosure in men and women.

In a study with 128 undergraduates, it was predicted that attributions of mental illness would be based on the extent to which self-disclosure deviates from appropriate sex role behavior for men and women. In support of this hypothesis Ss of both sexes rated a male stimulus person as being better adjusted when he failed to disclose than when he did disclose information about a personal problem. The reverse trend occurred when a female stimulus person was being evaluated; she was seen as better adjusted when she disclosed than when she did not. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Extraversion and reciprocation of interviewer disclosures.

Hypothesized that introverts would be more sensitive to situational variables (i.e., would vary their amount and depth of disclosure with the disclosure of the target person more than would extraverts). Regardless of the dependent measure of disclosure used (actual time talking or intimacy level), Ss (undergraduates) could not be differentiated on the basis of extraversion-intraversion. Implications of the finding of a consistently strong dyadic effect are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of experimental manipulation of self-disclosure on group cohesiveness.

Self-disclosure in 8-hr experiential groups was systematically controlled by providing detailed audiotaped instructions and illustrations through a series of structured exercises. Two levels of self-disclosure (level of intimacy) were established. Four 8-person, heterosexually balanced groups were exposed to encounter group tapes that instructed them to share intimate feelings and experiences. Examples of high self-disclosure and openness were presented to clarify the instructions. In contrast, 4 comparable groups were conducted by encounter group tapes that furnished only moderate levels of personal disclosure and interpersonal sharing. Groups in both the high and low intimacy conditions received the same set of exercises and differed only in the instructions and accompanying behavioral examples. All Ss were undergraduates. Results indicate that higher levels of disclosure produced greater group cohesiveness as hypothesized, on 4 separate measures of the dependent variable. Findings on 3 different types of self-report instruments were corroborated by an unobtrusive behavioral measure of cohesiveness (the group hug). (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of racial similarity and interviewer intimacy in a peer counseling analogue.

The effects of the intimacy of an interviewer's disclosure and the racial composition of a dyad on interviewees' liking for an interviewer, impressions of the interviewer, and subsequent self-disclosure were examined in a peer counseling analogue. We predicted and found that intimate disclosure by an interviewer is especially useful in eliciting self-disclosure from Black subjects. Furthermore, we predicted and found that differences in liking for and impressions of intimate and nonintimate interviewers would be particularly pronounced in those dyads in which the interviewer was White and the interviewee was Black with greater liking for and more positive impressions of the intimately disclosing interviewer. We discuss the implications of these results for the reported tendency for Blacks to terminate counseling prematurely and to disclose less than Whites in counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived child-rearing practices and self-disclosure patterns.

Investigated "the relationship between parental reinforcement and patterns of verbal expression," administering the Self-Disclosure Questionnaire, the Parent-Child Interaction Rating Scale, and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale to undergraduates. It was found that Ss turned to parents for personal disclosure, and that a relationship exists between stated self-expression to parents and perceived parental nurturance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of subliminal symbiotic activation on hypnotic rapport and susceptibility.

Divided 72 male undergraduates into 2 groups matched for susceptibility (high, medium, low) as measured by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale—Form A. Experimental Ss received symbiotic ("Mommy and I are one") subliminal stimulation via tachistoscope in a double-blind design. The comparison group received a psychodynamically neutral stimulus ("People are walking"). Following subliminal stimulation, Ss were hypnotized individually. Projective tasks that indexed rapport with the hypnotist and the mother were administered during hypnosis. Rapport was also measured by rated intimacy of self-disclosure topics and by valence of topics selected to disclose to the hypnotist. MANOVA showed that symbiotic fantasies had an impact on measures assumed to be relevant to affective, relationship factors in hypnosis. Ss in the "Mommy" group selected more positively valenced topics to disclose to the hypnotist. However, no interaction between hypnotic susceptibility level and symbiotic activation was found, suggesting that susceptibility does not mediate the rapport. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuroticism and disclosure reciprocity.

49 male undergraduates identified as either "normal" or "neurotic" by their scores on the Maudsley Personality Inventory were exposed to a confederate who disclosed either intimate or superficial information about himself, as part of an "impression formation" study. Normal males reciprocated disclosure at a level of intimacy similar to the confederates, but neurotics disclosed at a moderate level regardless of whether the confederate's initial disclosure was intimate or superficial. Results suggest that neuroticism may be related to inappropriate or nonnormative disclosure, rather than characteristically high or low levels of disclosure. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disclose or conceal? Strategies of information management in persons with epilepsy

PURPOSE: When handling information about their disease in their social contacts, persons with epilepsy try to avoid or limit stigmatization. We report two basic strategies of information management: general concealment and preventive disclosure. To test whether persons with epilepsy apply a strategy of preventive disclosure, we hypothesized that they would disclose their epilepsy when anticipating that their disease would make them conspicuous in social contacts and when believing that they would be able to forestall stigmatizing attribution processes through disclosure. METHODS: One hundred nineteen outpatients at the Bethel Epilepsy Center, Bielefeld, Germany, aged 16-74 years responded to a questionnaire assessing willingness to disclose their epilepsy in various fictitious daily scenarios, the perceived risk that the interaction partner might find out about their epilepsy (risk of detection), as well as the anticipated positive and negative social consequences of disclosure in these social situations. RESULTS: Willingness to disclose varied across the different scenarios, and only a few respondents rejected disclosure categorically. Willingness to disclose depended on the subjectively perceived risk of detection and the anticipated consequences of disclosure: Respondents were more willing to disclose their epilepsy the more they feared that their interaction partner would detect their disease or find out about it in another way and the more they anticipated that disclosure would enable them to exert a favorable impact on their partner's social judgment formation. CONCLUSIONS: Many persons with epilepsy appear to apply a strategy of preventive disclosure with which they strive to influence social judgment formation in their environment by purposefully disclosing their disease to forestall possible stigmatization processes.     

Reactions to child custody decisions involving homosexual and heterosexual parents.

Examined the effects of gender and sexual orientation of petitioning parents on attitudes about child custody decisions among 274 undergraduates who were either high or low in homophobia. In Phase 1, Ss completed the Heterosexual Attitudes Toward Homosexuals Scale and the Kinsey Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale that were embedded in a general questionnaire on social attitudes. In Phase 2, the same Ss were asked to give their opinions about the outcome of contrived custody cases where the parent winning custody was homosexual or heterosexual. There was less support for a homosexual than a heterosexual parent. This was particularly noticeable for male Ss. Unexpectedly, mothers were not favored over fathers; instead, Ss favored parents of their own gender. Ss who scored low in homophobia reacted more favorably to a homosexual parent than a heterosexual parent, while the reverse was true for those scoring high in homophobia. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disclosing of verbal material as a function of information requested, information about the interviewer, and interviewee differences.

Describes an experiment with 64 undergraduate males, differing in reported histories of self-disclosure and assessed level of need approval as measured by the self-disclosure questionnaire and the marlowe-crowne social desirability scale. Ss were given personal vs. Impersonal information by and about e at the outset of an interview, and were subsequently requested to disclose their attitudes, feelings, and experiences about public and private topics. Approval-dependent ss for the most part were not more defensive than low-need-approval ss, either in response to interviewer information models or types of topics. As expected, public topics elicited less guardedness and greater self-disclosure than private aspects of self. Contrary to expectations, low self-disclosers were most disclosing when presented with personal information about the interviewer, and more so than ss reporting high disclosure histories. Results are discussed in terms of viewing dyadic informational exchange from an interpersonal risk framework. (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disclosing HIV seropositivity to significant others

OBJECTIVES: To examine gay men's patterns of self-disclosure of HIV seropositivity to friends, lovers, relatives and colleagues; to assess the effects of disclosure; and to identify reasons for not disclosing to particular individuals. DESIGN: Longitudinal questionnaire survey of gay men. METHODS: A total of 163 HIV-positive men participating in the AIDS Behavioral Research Project, a longitudinal study of San Francisco gay men, completed questionnaires about their self-disclosure patterns, health status, and psychological well-being. RESULTS: HIV-positive men were most likely to disclose their status to lovers and closest gay friends. Asymptomatic men were less likely to disclose to relatives and colleagues than symptomatic men. Friends and lovers were rated as responding more helpfully than relatives and colleagues. Men who perceived their significant others as responding more helpfully were less depressed and anxious currently and 1 year later. A variety of reasons were given for not disclosing, including not wanting to worry others, fear of discrimination, fear of disrupting relationships, and emotional self-protection. CONCLUSION: While disclosure can have advantages for both HIV-positive individuals and their significant others, HIV-positive individuals must be assured that the benefits of doing so will outweigh the potential costs.     

The process of intimacy: similarity, understanding and gender

This study examined gender and three aspects of marital intimacy using a method to establish both objective and subjective indices of intimacy. Fifty couples answered the Personal Assessment of Intimate Relationships (Schaefer & Olson, 1981) twice: once as a self-report and once to respond as they predicted their spouses would answer. Couples who were less accurate in predicting each other's responses also diverged in their experience of intimacy and reported lower intimacy. Results suggest that high intimacy is based on both understanding and similarity of intimate experience. Women reported significantly higher levels of intimacy and were also better than men in predicting their partners' feelings. These findings suggest that women may be more attuned to intimacy or that definitions and assessment of intimacy are gender biased or both.     

The use of differentiation and integration processes: Empirical studies of "separate" and "connected" ways of thinking.

Two studies investigated the prediction that differentiation would be used by individuals concerned with separateness, personal agency, and power, whereas integration would be used by individuals concerned with relatedness, interpersonal communion, and intimacy. In Exp 1, women who reexperienced a personal event linked to communal issues used more integration (relative to differentiation) when evaluating target persons than did men who reexperienced a personal event linked to agency. Exp 2 demonstrated that in situations that were congruent with their motives, intimacy-motivated women and men used more integration (relative to differentiation) when evaluating target persons than did power-motivated men and women. Findings suggest that differentiation and integration may serve different and specific functions related to the concerns of individuals in particular social contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)