A fire simulation facility for materials response testing

The people who did much of the test work in the search for a suitable heat shield material for the Apollo spacecraft have turned their attention toward fire protection through materials. The authors are part of a thermodynamics laboratory team that is studying the thermal behavior of newly developed materials. Avco Systems Division Note: At the time of this writing, there was a patent pending on the Fire Simulation Facility discussed in this paper.     

Non-linear structural modelling of a fire test subject to high restraint

The computer code VULCAN has been developed for the three-dimensional structural analysis of composite and steel-framed buildings in fire. In this paper, the main features of the program are outlined, with particular emphasis on the most recent development to the layered procedure for modelling of concrete floor slabs. This development has introduced geometric non-linearity into the modelling of slabs, whose layer structure already allowed temperature distributions and change of material properties through the thickness, as well as modelling the effect of the ribs at the bottom of composite decking slabs. The capabilities of the model are firstly tested at ambient temperature for a uniformly loaded ribbed reinforced concrete slab with simply supported edges, and this is followed by a very detailed modelling of the Cardington restrained beam fire test. In both cases the development of membrane action is demonstrated and the structural behaviour is compared with the geometrically linear case. A number of studies are carried out to demonstrate the influence of the major floor slab details on the behaviour of the structure in fire conditions. These studies provide evidence that when exposed steel temperatures are less than 400°C the concrete slab has little influence, other than to play a part in generating thermal curvature to composite beams. For temperatures higher than about 500°C the effect of the slab progressively becomes much greater, and it is very important to model concrete slabs correctly. The influence of membrane action cannot be ignored, particularly when the fire compartment is subject to high restraint because it is surrounded by cool, stiff structure. At very high temperatures the floor slab becomes the main load-bearing element and the floor loads above the fire compartment are carried by the membrane forces developed in the slab, with tension being carried mainly by the steel anti-cracking mesh or reinforcing bars. However, the effect of the very high in-plane restraint to thermal expansion in the particular Cardington test considered is to enhance the peripheral zone of compressive membrane force and to reduce the extent of the central area of tensile force compared with more usual cases.     

材料对火反应实验方法比较

概括了材料对火反应特性主要的实验方法及国内外的相关标准，分析了各类方法的特点，小型实验方法一般只能测量影响燃烧过程的某个特定方面，而大型实验方法比较接近真实火灾的条件。不同的实验方法往往产生不同的分级评价结果。     

林火三维蔓延的数学模型和计算机仿真

通过在直坡表面上对同种条件的林火蔓延的分析，建立各种坡度表面上不同条件下林火蔓延的数学模型，并对偏微分方程进行数字化求解，对各种复杂表面条件的火灾模型进行了合理的实验仿真。     

Improved fire resistance test method for belt materials

A moderately scaled apparatus was developed for determining the fire resistance characteristics of mice conveyor belts and similar type materials. The test method overcomes the limitations of existing laboratory-scale methods and provides a measure of both ignitability and flammability in quantitative terms. Data are presented for nine belt materials, and fire resistance ratings are proposed in terms of the flame spread rate, heat release rate, and critical ignitor heat flux.     

FOCUS: A computer simulation model for fire control planning

The U.S. Forest Service has been working toward the development of a mathematical model that is expected to point the way to improved efficiency in forest fire fighting and fire prevention.     

Analog simulation of a fire safety probability model for high-rise buildings

An electrical analogy of a fire safety system decision tree has been made to assist building designers to attain fire safety goals in structural design.     

Sensitivity of fire size to fireline construction rates in a simulation model

An initial attack model was sensitive to changes in production rate of suppression forces, as shown by changes in final fire size.The adequacy of fireline construction rates used in fire planning models has been questioned. A fire containment model was tested over a range of suppression force productivities to show the effect on final fire size. The percentage of fires that escaped was sensitive to the productivity of line-building units. The degree of sensitivity depended on the severity of environmental conditions. Final fire size was most affected by fireline construction rates under the most severe environmental conditions tested. Using distributions of production rates from weighted averages of the results produced final fire sizes similar to those obtained using point estimates in the simulation model. Planners may be able to use graphs like those presented, in place of iterations of a fire containment model. Reference: Eric L. Smith, Sensitivity of Fire Size to Fireline Construction Rates in a Simulation Model,Fire Technology, Vol. 22, No. 2, May 1986, p. 136.     

A modular approach to the subject of fire safety engineering

It is suggested that the subject matter of fire safety engineering be divided into twelve sections. This follows some six years of experience of running an MSc course in the subject. Most of the sections would consist of two parts, a basic part and a more advanced part, and each of these would comprise a module in the subject. It is suggested that most of the basic modules should be common knowledge for all fire safety engineers but a more restricted selection of the advanced modules would be needed for the various specialists in the subject. Ways in which university degrees and other qualifications may be put together using this modular approach are outlined.     

A multi-layer zone model for predicting fire behavior in a fire room

A multi-layer zone fire growth model is developed to predict the fire behavior in a single room. The fire room volume is divided into an arbitrary number of horizontal layers, in which the temperature and other physical properties are assumed to be uniform. The principal equations for each laminated horizontal layer are derived from the conservation equations of mass and energy. The implemented fire sub-models are introduced, including combustion, fluid flow and heat transfer models. Combined with these sub-models, the zone equations can be integrated with Runge–Kutta method for the gas temperature and species fractions of each layer for each time step. The results of the sample calculations are compared with the experiments conducted by Steckler and the University of Canterbury. In general, a good agreement between experimental and theoretical results is obtained.     

A small-world network model for the simulation of fire spread onboard naval vessels

This work is devoted to the development of a small-world network model to predict real-time fire spread onboard naval vessels. This model takes into account short-range and long-range connections between neighboring and remote network compartments. Fire ignition and flashover, as well as fire transmissions through the walls and ventilation ducts are simulated using time-dependent normal probability density functions. Mean durations of fire transmission through the walls and ducts are determined by a three-zone model and a one-dimensional CFD code, respectively. Specific experiments are conducted in a steel room, representative of a naval vessel compartment, in order to validate the zone model. Then a proof of concept is developed by applying the network model to a full-scale vessel mockup composed of 113 compartments on 7 decks. A statistical study is conducted to produce fire risk maps, classifying the vessel compartments according to their propensity to burn.     

Analysis, synthesis and simulation of fire signals as a tool for the test of automatic fire detection systems

A simulation method for the test of one input fire detection algorithm is presented. A signal model is described, capable of synthesising time variant random signal sequences with similar statistical properties, as observed for signals of smoke- and temperature-measuring devices in reality. The time varying model parameters are derived from recorded signals in realistic environmental conditions. The necessary analysis method is discussed.

The simulation method is equally well suited for synthesising signal sequences in the ‘fire-’ and ‘nonfire’ case, which is necessary for the detectivity test of a detection algorithm. A fast transputer implementation yields acceptable calculation times even for estimates of the false alarm rate, corresponding to years observation time in reality.     

材料产烟毒性危险分级试验方法学原理

介绍判定材料产烟毒性危险级别的简化试验装置和用少量实验动物的试验方法，陈述方法学原理和所持有的观点。     

Impact of new materials and construction systems on fire test technology

New construction techniques and the growing number of building materials have resulted in the modification of old fire test methods and the development of new ones. Many otherwise useful materials have failed the highly restrictive noncombustibility test that is in use today. The author suggests that tests more basis than the full scale fire endurance tests must be devised to more accurately evaluate the effects of combustible materials under fire conditions. Note: This paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Society fo Fire protection Enginneers at Washington, D. C., May 19, 1965, as part of a program arranged by the Chesapeake Chapter of SFPE.     

A novel fire test for pipe insulation

The author discusses the development of fire tests for pipe insulation that are intended to provide more realistic use conditions than traditional tests for the fire hazard of materials. Note: The author presented this paper at the 80th Annual Meeting of the National Fire Protection Association, held in Houston, Texas, May 1976.     

火灾试验用标准燃烧物的制备及燃烧特性

基于典型场所的火灾载荷密度及可燃物,制备了典型的塑料杯组合体和纸杯组合体标准燃烧物,开展两种标准燃烧物的燃烧特性试验研究.结果表明,两种典型的标准燃烧物的燃烧性能稳定,总热值、火灾增长速率数据偏差较小,实验的重现性良好;在一定条件下,塑料杯组合体标准燃烧物可近似代表火灾载荷约为157.8 MJ的近中速火,纸杯组合体标准燃烧物可近似代表火灾载荷约为51.1 MJ的慢速火.     

国内首个大型外墙保温体系火灾模拟试验模型落户北京

国内首个采用现代耗氧原理设计建成的大型屋角火灾模拟试验室外模型．El前在北京振利高新技术有限公司大兴基地建成。该模型借鉴美国标准保险商安全标准UL 1040《建筑隔热墙体火灾测试》（Fire Test of Insulated Wall Constructionl（见图1）．并做了局部调整。模型高30ft,两面成直角的墙体外侧宽度为20ft,顶面采用不燃的无机板材遮盖。     

材料火灾特性试验与标准房间火灾试验结果之间关系的研究

对商场中几种常用装饰材料进行了锥型量热计的试验,并和实体标准房间火灾的试验进行比对、验证研究,初步得到一些有实用价值的结论。     

模拟试验在火灾原因认定中的应用

就模拟试验在火灾原因认定中的作用,火灾模拟试验应注意的问题和火灾模拟试验的发展方向作了阐述。