Ethics and the professional practice of psychologists: The role of virtues and principles.

We evaluate the potential relevance of virtue ethics to the training and practice of professional psychologists, and we contrast them with principle ethics. Typically, principles are used to facilitate the selection of socially and historically acceptable answers to the question "What shall I do ?" when confronted by ethical dilemmas. Virtue ethics, however, generally focus on the question "Who shall I be?" Strengths and weaknesses of each approach are presented. The impact of each is discussed with respect to informed consent and the therapeutic construct "genuineness." We conclude that virtue ethics are an essential component of responsible ethical training and practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The virtue of multiculturalism: Personal transformation, character, and openness to the other.

The social, intellectual, and moral movement known as multiculturalism has been enormously influential in psychology. Its ability to reshape psychology has been due to its ethical force, which derives from the attractiveness of its aims of inclusion, social justice, and mutual respect. The cultivation of cultural competence, presented as a developmental process of acquiring self-awareness, cultural knowledge, and skills, is an important emphasis in the multicultural literature. The authors place the cultural competence literature in dialogue with virtue ethics (a contemporary ethical theory derived from Aristotle) to develop a rich and illuminating way for psychologists to understand and embody the personal self-examination, commitment, and transformation required for learning and practicing in a culturally competent manner. According to virtue ethics, multiculturalism can be seen as the pursuit of worthwhile goals that require personal strengths or virtues, knowledge, consistent actions, proper motivation, and practical wisdom. The authors term the virtue of multiculturalism openness to the other and conclude by describing how attention to cultural matters also transforms virtue ethics in important and necessary ways. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Guidelines for psychological evaluations in child protection matters.

Presents the American Psychological Association's (APA's) guidelines for desirable professional practice in child protection matters. The guidelines were developed primarily for psychologists conducting psychological evaluations in child protection matters. The guidelines build on the APA's Ethical Principals of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 1992) and are aspirational in intent. The term guidelines refers to pronouncements, statements, or declarations that suggest or recommend specific professional behavior, endeavor, or conduct for psychologists (APA, 1992). The guidelines are not intended to be either mandatory or exhaustive and may not always be applicable to legal matters. Their aspirational intent is to facilitate the continued systematic development of the profession and to help assure a high level of professional practice by psychologists. The specific goal of the guidelines is to promote proficiency in using psychological expertise in conducting psychological evaluations in child protection matters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethics: Virtue and politics in the science and practice of psychology.

Discusses the thesis that the discipline of psychology needs to re-discover and reclaim virtue and moral values as its base for ethical behavior, thinking, and being. Psychology has a short history in formalizing codes of ethics and codes of conduct. Current and historical events, and concepts and values, including those based on philosophy and religion, have influenced the development of psychology's scientific and professional codes. The ethical behavior of psychologists may be inspired by values, regulated by rules, determined by external pressures, or any combination of these. Emerging issues and challenges in today's changing and turbulent society require an incorporation of moral principles in finding acceptable strategies to achieve acceptable goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching ethics: The utility of the CPA code.

Teaching professional ethics can take 2 very different forms, reflecting different fundamental assumptions about ethical rules, and leading to different problem-solving strategies in professional life. In this article, the author outlines and contrasts the 2 approaches, which he calls the overriding principle approach and the moral dilemma approach. The first reifies ethical principles and underpins them with rationales drawn from moral philosophy. The second sees principles as templates of default options, which may or may not fit the facts of the case and the context in which a decision must be made. In the moral dilemma approach, for instance, there is always some circumstance in which following a particular moral rule would produce the wrong result. The Canadian Psychological Association Code of Ethics has different advantages and disadvantages for teaching professional ethics depending on one's fundamental approach. The author concludes that although he believes its rhetoric and its ordering of rules seems to reflect the overriding principle approach, the Code is actually more relevant to the moral dilemma approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Readers comment on response to chest tube instillation question

The place of philosophical medical ethics in medical education and clinical practice has recently been questioned. Although partially valid, the criticisms do not warrant abandoning the enterprise. Instead a reappraised model, based on Aristotelean concepts of intellectual and moral virtue is suggested.     

Digestive and metabolic adaptations of ruminants to undernutrition, and consequences on reproduction

In this paper I seek to distinguish a feminist virtue ethics of care from (1) justice ethics, (2) narrative ethics, (3) care ethics and (4) virtue ethics. I also connect this contemporary discussion of what makes a virtue ethics of care feminist to eighteenth and nineteenth century debates about male, female, and human virtue. In conclude that by focusing on issues related to gender--primarily those related to the systems, structures, and ideologies that create and sustain patterns of male domination and female subordination--we can begin to appreciate that true care and bona-fide virtue can flourish only in societies that treat all persons with equal respect and consideration.     

To what ends? Psychotherapy goals and outcomes, the good life, and the principle of beneficence.

Psychotherapists aim to benefit others, especially clients. The corresponding ethical principle, beneficence, is found in the aspirational, not enforceable, section of the American Psychological Association (2002) ethics code, is central to the idea of a professional, and is a crucial component of ethical excellence. Beneficence and related controversies (e.g., varying ideas about what it means to benefit others) are described, then linked to psychotherapy's goals and outcomes (which are, in part, the ethical ends toward which therapy aims and by which it is evaluated), especially through ideas about the good life. I conclude by discussing ways in which therapists can--through careful reflection and action aimed at benefiting others--move toward ethical excellence regarding beneficence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The forms and limits of medical ethics

As medical ethics has evolved over the past several decades, it has come to be regarded as a domain of applied ethics, that is, the application of a rationally based, philosophical theory to moral problems in health care. But an array of difficulties arise in the attempt to apply general moral theories or norms to concrete problems, difficulties that expose the incompleteness and indeterminacy of philosophical moral theory. The doubtful ability of applied ethics to be practically helpful has led to the development of two main competitors. One is the attempt to reprise and rehabilitate the tradition of moral casuistry, which focuses on the analysis of specific cases rather than on the defense and application of theories and norms. The second is the search for moral insight and guidance in narratives or stories. These alternatives suffer from some of the same difficulties that plague applied ethics, however. Another trend in medical ethics rejects the theoretical preoccupation of applied ethics in favour of contextualism--an insistence on situating moral problems in institutional and organizational structures and in social and cultural backgrounds. Social science investigations of medical ethics pay attention to the former, while feminist critiques of medical ethics are concerned with exposing and eradicating cultural biases against women. Contemporary work in medical ethics is diverse, but these manifold approaches hold out the promise of improving our understanding of morality as a truly practical enterprise.     

The importance of 2,3-dimercaptopropinol (British anti-lewisite, BAL) in the trypanocidal activity of topical melarsoprol

The author agrees with the critiques of moral theory offered by such writers as Bernard Williams and Alasdair MacIntyre, and uses ideas from Heidegger and Levinas to argue that caring is an ontological structure of human existence which takes two forms: caring about on self (which he calls our "self-project") and caring-about-others. This dual form of caring is expressed on four Aristotelian levels of human living which the author describes and illustrates with reference to the phenomenon of pain. It is concluded from this analysis that traditional notions of morality as imposing obligations should give way to an understanding of ethics as the social forms given to our caring for ourselves and for others. A number of implications for ethical theory are sketched out with the conclusion that virtue theory should be preferred and that the model could be worked out more fully to show that virtue theory can be internalist, particularist, pluralist, personalist and objectivist.     

Ethics in nursing

The conclusion reached at the end of this article is that there is a crisis in the ethics of nursing and that the focus of the ethics of nursing should be on virtues. The reconstruction of a virtue-based ethics in nursing is proposed as a solution for the current crisis in the ethics of nursing. With an analysis conducted on the ethics of nursing the story is told of an individual nurse within nursing in the South African society. Certain concepts to ethics as well as the dimensions of ethics in nursing are explained within the narrative of nursing. The institutionalisation of ethics of nursing is described based on the three ethical traditions that moved from virtues, to responsibility to human rights. An analysis of the moral practice in nursing indicates that a crisis in the ethics of nursing exist within the last tradition of human rights because of the conflict between the rights of the nurse and the patient. Through the analysis it becomes clear that no rules, codes or law can ensure moral behaviour. The control over moral behaviour should rather be internal than external. If a person does not have the virtues he or she does not understands the rules and human rights and responsibilities have a different meaning for them.     

Rationality, possibility and difference as bases of moral development.

Discusses the bases of moral development, based on a review of relevant literature. L. Kohlberg's (1981) cognitive structural theory of moral development prescribes abstract egalitarianism as the ideal form of moral reasoning. It is argued that this conceptualization represents an overly modernist, individualist reading of Platonic moral philosophy. H. G. Gadamer (1986), in contrast, sees Plato teaching that virtue is learned implicitly, through exemplifying a virtuous person. Belief that virtue must be justified rationally leads to the dissolution of social, communal bases of moral learning. His view suggests a more humanly relevant rendering of Platonic moral reasoning than that suggested by Kohlberg. This view suggests the possibility that virtue is irreducibly social, seen in the meaningful differences that acts have for others, and in implicit interpersonal relatedness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of positive ethics and virtues in the context of sport and performance psychology service delivery.

Ethical principles developed for clinical/counseling psychologists are a useful, but incomplete, guide for sport and performance psychology (SPP) practitioners. Positive and virtue ethics are introduced to the SPP ethical literature as an additional resource. Positive ethics focus on practitioners' reaching their fullest potential rather than avoiding risk (Knapp & VanDeCreek, 2006). Virtue ethics emphasize the character of the professional rather than situational variables (Newman, Robinson-Kurpius, & Fuqua, 2002). The context in which SPP practice occurs is described and commonly resulting ethical dilemmas are identified. The aspects of SPP context explored are: the domain of performance, SPP settings, SPP interventions, and expectations. The ethical issues discussed are: multiple relationships (including boundaries and dual agency), confidentiality, and self-regulation. Drawing from positive and virtue ethics as well as small community and military psychology, advice for managing the issues is provided. The inclusion of character and fitness requirements in training programs is explored to address the self-governance necessitated by the professional isolation of SPP practitioners. Suggestions for future professional practice and research are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A theory of ethics for forensic psychiatry

This article offers a justification for a set of principles that constitute the ethical underpinnings of forensic psychiatry. Like professional ethics in general, the principles are based on the particular societal functions performed by forensic psychiatrists and result in the intensification of obligations to promote certain important moral values. For forensic psychiatrists, the primary value of their work is to advance the interests of justice. The two principles on which that effort rests are truth-telling and respect for persons. In the same manner as other physicians who perform functions outside of the usual clinical context (e.g., clinical researchers), forensic psychiatrists cannot simply rely on general medical ethics, embedded as they are in the doctor-patient relationship--which is absent in the forensic setting. Indeed, efforts to retain some residuum of that relationship and its associated ethical principles are likely to create confusion in the minds of both forensic psychiatrists and their evaluees and to heighten the problems of double agency. A virtue of this approach is the clear distinction it offers between clinical and forensic roles.     

Record Keeping Guidelines.

These guidelines are designed to educate psychologists and provide a framework for making decisions regarding professional record keeping. State and federal laws, as well as the American Psychological Association's "Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct," generally require maintenance of appropriate records of psychological services. The nature and extent of the record will vary depending upon the purpose, setting, and context of the psychological services. Within these guidelines, more directive language has been used when a particular guideline is based specifically on mandatory provisions of the Ethics Code or law. However, some areas are not addressed in those enforceable standards and regulations. In these areas, more aspirational language has been used. This document aims to elaborate and provide assistance to psychologists as they attempt to establish their own record keeping policies and procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using deception ethically: Practical research guidelines for researchers and reviewers.

This article reviews highlights in the literature on existing recommendations for ethical use of deception in psychological research. We conclude that ethical guidelines and aspirational statements set out by research policies and advisory panels on ethics must eventually be operationalized into concrete terms when introducing deception into a research design. Specific directives for using deception are especially important for new researchers developing projects and also for university/departmental reviewers who are being asked to evaluate the ethical standing of proposed research. We offer a checklist designed to cultivate the understanding of junior researchers and to facilitate the review process by instantiating the relevant general guidelines into a set of Y/N questions about intended research. Finally, the article presents empirical data from researchers and ethics reviewers who provided end-user evaluations of the tool. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Where lies social responsibility?

L. Krasner's article, "Behavior Control and Social Responsibility" (see record 1963-00116-001) bypassed several points of view which might clarify some of the issues discussed, and at the same time tone down what seems to be an exaggerated claim for urgency in dealing with problems of social responsibility. In the matter of considering moral and ethical issues, it is important to proceed with calmness and careful consideration rather than to become overly excited about finding the "right" solution. Even the "psychologist-researcher" is human and when he turns his hand to such things as communicating to the lay public he may fall into the pattern of the "sensationalists and popularizers," though obviously not so crudely. First among three basic questions and answers presented by Krasner is that concerning whether or not human behavior is controllable. His answer is to the effect that there is overwhelming experimental evidence that human behavior is controllable. Such a statement seems exaggerated in the face of other evidence from both experimental and clinical impressions. Krasner states that there is a "subtle but important" difference between the "psychology of behavior control" and the science of psychology. There are several objections to some of Krasner's implications that the behavioral scientist is not or at least is less bound by an ethical and moral system. There seem to be no logical grounds for distinguishing in principle between an ethics for behavioral scientists and an ethics for behavior controllers. The atomic scientists produced a bomb as scientists employed by their government while at war. They did their job effectively. As informed private citizens they held some moral reservations as to the consequences of their scientific endeavors. The behavioral scientist and the behavior controller can also perform their professional tasks dispassionately and efficiently, but as people they might well look to the ethical and moral issues involved. They can choose to take appropriate ethical and moral action as private citizens who have the advantages of specialized knowledge. The behavioral scientist and the behavior controller are not to be compartmentalized into a patchwork of separate roles, rather they are to see themselves as integrated individuals functioning in various ways which on occasion may bring about a conflict in ethical and moral values. Then they should be enabled to resolve the conflicts for themselves on a rational basis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of a code of ethics for Canadian psychologists.

Over the past 5 yrs, the Canadian Psychological Association has been in the process of developing a new code of ethics for Canadian psychologists. Reasons for this effort are outlined, and the previously used American Psychological Association code is examined in terms of 4 main purposes of ethics codes: to help establish a group as a profession; to act as a support and guide to individual professionals; to help meet the responsibilities of being a profession; and to provide a statement of moral principle that helps the individual professional resolve ethical dilemmas. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Combined use of 5 alpha-reductase inhibitors and alpha-l adrenergic receptor blockers in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia

Historically, the ethics of a professional were the ethics of a gentleman. The social changes in the 1960s, where citizens asked for a greater voice in all affairs that affected them gave rise to formal approaches to ethics in the health fields. Principle-based and case-based reasoning have been dominant. Neither codes nor approaches based on virtue (the character of the professional) are perfect solutions in all cases, but professions are strengthened through the development and discussion of statements about ethical conduct.     

Moral elevation can induce nursing.

There is little extant research on the psychological or physiological response to witnessing good deeds. The authors call the emotional reaction to virtue "moral elevation" and the authors examined its effects on mother-infant dyads. Breastfeeding women who watched a morally elevating video were more likely to nurse their infants and were marginally more likely to hug them, compared to women who watched an equally enjoyable comedy video. Both of these effects suggest that moral elevation may involve the release of oxytocin, a hormone associated with lactation and affiliation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)