Measuring transference: Can we identify what we have not defined?

Transference is both a key concept and a complex phenomenon in psychoanalytic counseling. The Missouri Identifying Transference Scale is an important effort in measuring transference. The development of a tool to measure a theoretical construct, however, must rest on a solid definitional base; K. D. Multon, M. J. Patton, and D. M. Kivlighan (see record 199600458-001) need to provide such a base if their scale is to be maximally useful for understanding the relationships among transference as a concept, the measurement of transference, and clinical process and outcome. A wish list for the study and understanding of transference is included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transference in everyday experience: Implications of experimental research for relevant clinical phenomena.

Experimental research examining the clinical concept of transference (S. Freud 1912/1958; H. S. Sullivan, 1953) using a social–cognitive model has demonstrated that mental representations of significant others are stored in memory and can be activated and applied in new social encounters, with consequences for cognition, evaluation, affect, motivation, expectancies, and self-evaluations (S. M. Andersen and N. S. Glassman, 1996; S. M. Andersen, I. Reznik, and S. Chen, 1997). These findings constitute empirical demonstration of transference in everyday social relations and suggest that transference is a normal, nonpathological process, occurring both inside and outside psychotherapy, following basic rules of social information processing. In this article clinical implications of this research are discussed, including how the content versus process of transference may contribute to maladaptive transference responses and the potential value of identifying triggering cues in transference in real life and in therapy to promote more adaptive responding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor recognition of transference reactions: Reply to Mallinckrodt (1996) and Carter (1996).

J. A. Carter (see record 199600458-003) and B. Mallinckrodt (see record 199600458-002) have provided thought-provoking critiques of the article (K. D. Multon, M. J. Patton, & D. M. Kivlighan; see record 199600458-001) that described the development of the Missouri Identifying Transference Scale. This reply attempts to address the issues of construct definition noted by both respondents, argues for the importance of a multimethod approach in describing transference, and attempts to differentiate transferential aspects of the relationship from other relational components. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relational self: An interpersonal social-cognitive theory.

The authors propose an interpersonal social-cognitive theory of the self and personality, the relational self, in which knowledge about the self is linked with knowledge about significant others, and each linkage embodies a self-other relationship. Mental representations of significant others are activated and used in interpersonal encounters in the social-cognitive phenomenon of transference (S. M. Andersen & N. S. Glassman, 1996), and this evokes the relational self. Variability in relational selves depends on interpersonal contextual cues, whereas stability derives from the chronic accessibility of significant-other representations. Relational selves function in if-then terms (W. Mischel & Y. Shoda, 1995), in which ifs are situations triggering transference, and thens are relational selves. An individual's repertoire of relational selves is a source of interpersonal patterns involving affect, motivation, self-evaluation, and self-regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Describing the face of transference: Psychodynamic therapists' recollections about transference in cases of successful long-term therapy.

This study used the consensual qualitative research method to address questions about therapists' perceptions of transference in long-term therapy: How does transference operate? How is transference dealt with and resolved? What problems do therapists encounter with transference? Eleven dynamically oriented therapists were interviewed by phone about a successful case in which transference was an important part of treatment. On the basis of therapists' recollections, findings suggested that transference operated in a complex manner in terms of source, valence, themes, and the events influencing it; therapists used a wide range of techniques (nonanalytic and analytic) to deal with transference; working alliance, real relationship, and client emotional insight importantly influenced the resolution of transference; and a variety of countertransference reactions and mistakes were encountered when dealing with transference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The working self-concept in transference: Significant-other activation and self change.

This research tested the hypothesis that changes in the working self-concept emerge in transference, defined as the activation and application of a significant-other representation to a new person and indexed by relevant inferences and memory (e.g., S. M. Andersen & A. Baum, see record 82-21185; S. M. Andersen et al, see record 82-40398). In an idiographic-nomothetic design, participants learned of a target person who resembled their own or a yoked participant's positively or negatively toned significant other. Results replicated the basic memory effect verifying transference. As predicted, the working self-concept changed in the transference condition. After learning about the new person, participants' freely listed self features shifted; the working self-concept became more infused with aspects of the self reflecting the self when with this significant other. Relevant changes in self evaluation were observed. Hence, changes in the working self-concept occurred in transference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of past relationships on interpersonal behavior: Behavioral confirmation in the social–cognitive process of transference.

This study extended research on transference in social perception (e.g., S. M. Andersen, I. Reznik, & L. M. Manzella, 1996) into the realm of social behavior by examining behavioral confirmation (e.g., M. Snyder, 1992) in transference. Each perceiver participated in a brief conversation with a naive target participant, who either did or did not appear to resemble the perceiver's own positively or negatively regarded significant other. Trained judges rated positive affect expressed in targets' behavior. As predicted, targets expressed more positive affect in their behavior when they allegedly resembled the perceiver's own positively versus negatively toned significant other, an effect not found in the control condition. This evidence demonstrates behavioral confirmation in transference, suggesting a means by which present relationships may resemble past ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Advent of objective measures of the transference concept.

Reviews research on measurement of transference that has used Q-sort questionnaires and psychotherapy process measures. The 1st type of measure, although reliable, has lacked validity information. The newer psychotherapy process measures, such as the 1st author's (1976) core conflictual relationship theme (CCRT) method, provide evidence for their reliability and validity. A study of 8 patients showed considerable comparability between data from the CCRT method and operationalized propositions from 9 of Freud's observations about transference, which concerned such issues as the uniqueness, origins, and consistency of the transference pattern. The CCRT is compared with other methods, and methodological issues and proposals that could further advance research on transference are examined. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identification and analyses of periodontal pathogens in Taiwan by microbiological tests

The effectiveness of transference interpretation in the psychodynamic psychotherapy of patients with borderline personality disorder has been highly controversial. Both highly expressive approaches that stress the value of transference interpretation and supportive strategies that eschew transference work have been advocated in the literature. We review this literature and identify three emerging trends in thought: (1) Primarily interpretive approaches should be reserved for patients with greater levels of ego strength. (2) Whichever technique is used, a strong therapeutic alliance is the foundation of treatment. (3) Expressive and supportive techniques should not be juxtaposed as polarized opposites; supportive interventions often pave the way for transference interpretation. Our psychotherapy process study revealed that transference interpretations tended to have greater impact--both positive and negative--than other interventions made with patients with borderline personality disorder. We conclude that such factors as neuropsychologically based cognitive dysfunction, a history of early trauma, patterns of object relations involving interpersonal distance, masochistic tendencies, and anaclitic rather than introjective psychopathology are among the patient characteristics that influence the impact of transference interpretation on the therapeutic alliance. Bias toward expressive technique and countertransference issues appear to be relevant to the therapist's difficulty in shifting to a more supportive approach when indicated.     

The relationship between clients' perceptions of therapist–parent similarity with respect to empathy, regard, and unconditionality and therapists' rating of client transference.

The authors studied the similarity between clients' perceptions of their therapists and their perceptions of their parents (or early parental figures) in terms of the relationship qualities of empathy, positive regard, and unconditionality of regard and how those perceptions compared with their therapists' ratings of transference. Participants were 62 actual therapy dyads. The results failed to support a hypothesized positive association between the similarity of the therapist and parents or parental figures on the relationship dimensions of empathy, regard, and unconditionality and therapist ratings of transference. Instead, the clients' relationship ratings of their parents and therapists suggested that therapists' perceptions of transference may more accurately reflect perceptions of their clients' nontransferential (i.e., real relationship) reactions to the therapist. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client attachment to therapist: Relations to transference and client recollections of parental caregiving.

This study examined the relations between client attachment to the therapist and therapist perceptions of transference, as well as between client attachment and recollections of parental caregiving. Participants were 51 client-therapist pairs in ongoing therapy. After a therapy session, clients completed a measure of their attachment to their therapists and a measure of their perceptions of parental caregiving during childhood. Therapists rated levels of positive and negative, and amount of, client transference. Both secure and preoccupied-merger attachment were positively related to both negative transference and amount of transference. Level of avoidant-fearful attachment was not correlated with any type of transference. Insecure attachment to the therapist was associated with more negative recollections of parental caregiving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a clinically relevant model of counseling research: Comment on Patton, Kivlighan, and Multon (1997) and Gelso, Kivlighan, Wine, Jones, and Friedman (1997).

This response to the articles by M. J. Patton, D. M. Kivlighan, and K. D. Multon and C. J. Gelso, D. M. Kivlighan, B. Wine, A. Jones, and S. C. Friedman (see records 84-23832, and 23827, respectively) focuses on the significance and timeliness of these studies, elements of an emerging model for counseling research, the current context of psychoanalytic theory relevant to the counseling and research models of these studies, and measurement of clinical constructs. A broader, though not exhaustive, set of constructs useful for research and practice in psychoanalytic counseling is suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transference, insight, and the course of time-limited therapy.

This study examined (a) the interactive role of therapist-rated transference and insight (in first session and first quarter of treatment) in predicting the outcome of time-limited therapy and (b) the course of therapist-rated transference and insight in more and less successful cases. The sample consisted of 33 completed cases. Although neither transference nor insight alone predicted outcome, the interaction of transference and emotional insight was significantly related to both client- and therapist-rated outcome. The course of negative transference and overall amount of transference differentiated more successful from less successful cases. In more successful cases, transference increased during the first three quarters of treatment and then declined, whereas in less successful cases, transference continued to increase throughout treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Data models, practical realities, and conceptual maps in clinical database design.

Comments on M. H. Burge's (see record 1993-03165-001) alternate model in response to the article by D. M. Todd et al (see record 1992-25001-001) on database management in clinical practice. Todd welcomes this suggestion and discusses reasons why a naturalistic clinical database cannot always satisfy the requirements of elegant data models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attachment perspectives on the counseling relationship: Comment on Mallinckrodt, Gantt, and Coble (1995).

B. Mallinckrodt, D. L. Gantt, and H. M. Coble (see record 1995-42468-001) highlight the role of attachment theory for explaining critical elements of the client–counseling relationship and the counseling process. The use of the Client Attachment to Therapist Scale as a typological vs continuous measure and the relationship between attachment style and therapeutic relationship constructs are discussed. A cautionary note on the internal validity of this scale is raised before underscoring the rich research possibilities gained by it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-concept and self-esteem as moderators of client transference.

Operationalized transference as (a) the similarity of clients' perceptions of their therapist and their perceptions of their parents and (b) therapists' ratings on a transference scale, Therapy Session Check Sheet (TSCS; H. Graff and L. Luborsky, 1977), and examined the moderating role of self-esteem and ego development on client transference. Ss were 62 clients (aged 19–63 yrs) who were already involved in therapy, and 29 therapists (aged 25–61 yrs). The Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (G. T. Barrett Lennard, 1962, 1973) measured the facilitative conditions (regard, empathy, and unconditionality) and therapist–parent similarity and the TSCS measured the therapists' perceptions of transference. Additional measures were the Ego Identity Scale (A. L. Tan, et al, 1977) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (M. Rosenberg, 1979). Results support the idea that self-esteem and ego development impact a client's view of the therapist and parental figures and are associated with therapists' views of transference. Persons with low ego identity and low self-esteem tended to see their therapists and parental figures more dissimilarly; and the more transference that a therapist perceived, the greater the tendency for the client to have low ego identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating some mind and brain views of transference: the phenomena

Because understanding the underpinnings of transferential learning allows the analyst to more effectively exploit transference in the clinical situation, as well as to advance psychoanalytic theory, the functions and mechanisms of transference phenomena in learning are subjected to an interdisciplinary analysis. Through transference the brain creates hierarchical databases that make emotional sense of the world, especially the world of human relationships. Transference plays a role in defense and resistance clinically; less explored but equally important is the adaptive potential of transference and its effect on an individual's readiness for structural change through the activation of working memory. Most investigators within psychoanalysis have not considered the importance of similarity judgments and memory priming, especially as these help to explain why transference and its proper handling are effective in treatment. Yet there are complex relationships among transference, similarity judgment, and memory priming that tie together psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology, and neurophysiology. Evidence increasingly suggests a relationship between transference and the transfer of knowledge between various content domains (databases) of mind and brain, which is essential to cognitive and emotional learning. There are indications as well that transference decisively facilitates learning readiness ("windows") in general by means of two of its components: free association and spontaneous (self-initiated) activity. The important question of which mind/brain mechanisms motivate transference is not yet understood comprehensively. However, Vygotsky's work on the zone of proximal development (ZPD), M.Stern's teleonomic theory, schema theory, and neural network theory offer further insights into what motivates transference.