A comparison of landscape metrics for conservation planning

This study examined the extent to which commonly used and easily obtained landscape metrics contribute to a conservation planning process that must be completed rapidly and economically. Specifically, we aimed to determine if landscape metrics could be used to guide the prioritization process when the importance of sites to conservation portfolios is measured in terms of irreplaceability, as measured by the probability that a particular site will be required in conservation reserve network. This question was examined in the context of a flexible planning process where the size of a conservation portfolio may vary over time. We used avian survey data from 35 riparian forest sites in central Ohio to calculate irreplaceability scores for each site. Landscape composition within a 1-km radius of each site was measured as the number of buildings and the percent forest, agriculture, roads, pavement and mowed surfaces. Multinomial logistic regression models were created and compared using Akaike Information Criterion. Results suggest that when predicting the irreplaceability value of a site, a simple yet effective method involves the use of forest coverage at the landscape-level plus one metric measuring human disturbance. This result appears to hold across a range of portfolio sizes and is therefore useful even in the context of a planning process that varies in scope over time.     

A landscape ecological model for wildlife enhancement of stormwater management practices in urban greenways

A spatial distribution model has been developed to predict the pattern of stormwater catchment facilities in developing urban areas. The model has been validated through comparison of predicted results with historical data in Guelph, Canada, using nearest neighbour analysis. The validated model has been applied to developing urban-rural fringe lands in Guelph to illustrate land use patterns likely to occur under different scenarios. Simulations of various scenarios for incorporating stormwater catchment facilities into greenways have been tested with the model and the resultant land use patterns compared with the status quo, through measures of landscape ecological integrity such as connectivity and porosity. The model was applied to an area on the edge of Guelph scheduled for development. The predicted land use patterns of various planning scenarios were generated and analysed. The results demonstrated that landscape integrity could be increased, urban wildlife habitat enhanced, and opportunities for residential non-consumptive wildlife recreation improved through integration of the evolving ‘blue-green’ open space provided by urban stormwater management facilities into existing greenways.     

Map of ecological networks for landscape planning

This paper presents a method based on a geographical information system (GIS) to model ecological networks in a fragmented landscape. The ecological networks are generated with the help of a landscape model (which integrate human activities) and with a wildlife dispersal model. The main results are maps which permit the analysis and the understanding of the impact of human activities on wildlife dispersal. Three applications in a study area are presented: ecological networks at the landscape scale, conflicting areas at the farmstead scale and ecological distance between biotopes. These applications show the flexibility of the model and its potential to give information on ecological networks at different planning scales.     

Evaluation of an ecological land type classification system, Natchez Trace State Forest, western Tennessee, USA

In an effort to aid future research and forest management decisions, we incorporated data on forest type, soils and topography into a geographic information systems (GIS)-based ecological land classification system for Natchez Trace State Forest (NTSF) in western Tennessee. The area is still recovering from the effects of cultivation, logging, forest clearing and grazing during the 1800s and early 1900s, but the data indicated that most stands now contain sawtimber-sized trees after more than 50 years of secondary succession. Our analyses showed that forest types were not randomly associated with soil characteristics or topography. For example, the most heavily gullied lands were strongly associated with pine forests while hardwoods were more associated with upland soils and certain types of sideslopes. Mature hardwood stands, which were deemed to be of the greatest conservation value, were classified into eight ecological land types based on soil type, aspect, orientation and topographic setting for further study. When these land types were evaluated with respect to data on forest composition and environmental conditions collected in the field, we found that the variables used to derive the eight classes were important in influencing floristic patterns. It was, however, clear that the classes themselves imperfectly captured patterns of overstory community composition for a number of reasons. Thus, while land types provide a potentially valuable management tool, their utility and successful implementation are dependent upon a recognition of their inherent limitations.     

Prioritizing conservation targets in a rapidly urbanizing landscape

We used an optimization modeling framework to devise spatially explicit habitat acquisition and restoration strategies for 19 remnant-dependent butterflies in a rapidly urbanizing county in the Chicago area. We first identified the smallest sets of protected sites that would contain at least one population of each species, and two populations for species present in multiple sites. We then identified undeveloped properties contiguous with these sites whose acquisition would further enhance conditions for focal species. Next, we considered parcels in the surrounding landscape that could potentially be acquired and restored to provide additional habitat. Assuming that the conservation value of additional habitats would increase with their proximity to protected sites, we examined tradeoffs between distance to sites and the cost of acquisition and restoration. The tradeoff curves generated by the model represented choices among sets of reserves that varied widely with regard to cost and distance. Among the non-dominated solutions for a given total area budget, the best solutions depend on the decision makers preference for these two objectives. Sets along the frontier of these curves differed in total cost due to the variation in the number of wetlands per parcel, the number and cost of parcels that must be acquired to provide sufficient habitat, and restoration costs. Several parcels appeared in all solutions and should be prioritized for acquisition. Our general approach is readily adaptable to other locations and planning objectives, but the models would need to be modified to accommodate different target species and their habitat requirements.     

Agricultural systems and landscape patterns: how can we build a relationship?

We compare the landscape structure generated by the farming systems of two French regions. The system of production and the resulting farm functioning appears to be a major factor in landscape organisation. More emphasis should be put on farming systems studies to enhance our understanding of landscape dynamics and associated ecological processes.     

Issues in using the Internet as a medium for landscape preference research

A survey has been undertaken using the Internet as a medium for gathering data on landscape scenic preference for a number of Scottish landscapes. This work has raised several issues on the use of the Internet for conducting such visually based surveys. The paper examines these issues in light of the results from the landscape preference questionnaire and discusses the future of the Internet for public input into the decision making process. The major issues addressed are those of the medium of display and the resolution of the display, the sample of respondents that can be obtained using the Internet, and the design of such surveys.     

Capitalising on multiplicity: a transdisciplinary systems approach to landscape research

Different disciplines have landscape as the focal point of their research. They are successful in presenting new findings about landscapes within their specialisation, but collaboration—and thus, transfer of knowledge across disciplinary boundaries—is seldom realised because a common approach that bridges the gaps between disciplines is missing. Instead, different landscape concepts exist side by side. Yet, cooperation is required to tackle the various environmental and social problems related to landscapes. This paper provides an overview of the historical development of landscape concepts originating from different cultural and scientific trends, and presents a new complex concept of landscape, which is designed to enable transdisciplinary landscape research. The transdisciplinary landscape concept is based on five dimensions of landscapes: the spatial entity, the mental entity, the temporal dimension, the nexus of nature and culture, and the systemic properties of landscapes. In contrast to other approaches, it unites dimensions that are usually the domain of individual disciplines and makes it, thus, possible to capitalise on plurality in landscape research. The concept promotes landscape as the combination of the subsystems known as the geo-, bio- and noo-sphere, and is illustrated by the people–landscape interaction model. The concept can be applied to all human–landscape-related research, but is exemplified by two studies that have investigated the relationship between landscape and second-home tourism, and landscape and farming, respectively.     

Valley landscape management: the context of a 'river contract' in the Semois valley, Belgium

A trans-boundary and multi-disciplinary approach to the river contract project for the Semois valley in Wallonia (Belgium) is described that provided the opportunity for a landscape-scale focus during actions to restore the watercourses and the associated valley area. A trans-boundary landscape survey was carried out under the context of the Interreg III European programme. This resulted in the rediscovery of lost views and viewpoints within the landscape and in the implementation of actions leading to the opening up of the valley, which provided opportunities to re-establish lost landscape features, such as hay meadows. The gathering of many partners in the negotiation process of this project can be seen as an example of 'landscape democratization' or participative management of landscapes in a trans-boundary and trans-disciplinary context and as such this project is a concrete realization of the aims of the European Landscape Convention (ELC).     

Satellite based land use and landscape complexity indices as predictors for regional plant species diversity

It is known that habitats composed of spatially heterogeneous abiotic conditions provide a great diversity of potentially suitable niches for plant species. The scientific premises of landscape ecology suggest that, at a higher spatial level, also the composition and structure of the landscape mosaic, influences biotic processes and hence species richness. In this exploratory study we investigated if plant species diversity could be correlated with landscape structure and complexity indices which were based on Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery. Plant species data were derived from the 4 km×4 km resolution Flora Database of Flanders (i.e. northern Belgium). Plant species number within the 4 km×4 km grid cells was positively correlated with most of the landscape diversity indices whereas landscape fragmentation indices only affected the group of the threatened species. We found a gradient of increasing species richness beginning from the rural areas of Flanders over the suburban towards the urban areas. This gradient was mostly due to the higher number of alien plant species, warmth indicators and threatened species in urbanised areas. We conclude that, at least in the studied region, the effects of landscape changes on plant species diversity can be monitored and predicted on a large scale and over long periods of time using land cover data. Bottleneck in this kind of analyses remains the reliability of the land cover data and the availability and reliability of the biological data.     

Achieving Whole-Landscape Management across Multiple Land Management Units: a case study from the Lake District Environmentally Sensitive Area

Many landscape and ecological features, such as riparian corridors, may span a number of different landholdings, and management practices are often inconsistent across those boundaries. Obtaining the co-operation of landowners thus emerges as one of the major obstacles to the attainment of Agri-Environmental Policy objectives, which are, to a greater or lesser degree, conditional on appropriate management practices being carried out at an appropriately extensive spatial scale. The utilization of the theoretical principles of landscape ecology is proposed as a framework for the planning and management of large areas, and a potential avenue whereby large-scale landscape plans could be matched with appropriate land-management frameworks. In spite of the difficulties associated with fragmented land ownership and land managers' differing perspectives and practices relating to conservation, the assumption that present patterns of farming and landholding are incompatible with the attainment of landscape-scale conservation management is challenged. The results of a study which has evaluated the scope for multiple-farm collaboration over conservation management planning, within the context of the uplands of the Lake District Environmentally Sensitive Area, are presented and discussed. Particular attention is drawn to the social dynamics of land ownership, neighbour relations and the 'problem' of common land as key issues in the sustainable management of upland landscapes.     

The application of ‘least-cost’ modelling as a functional landscape model

The growing awareness of the adverse effects of habitat fragmentation on natural systems has resulted in a rapidly increasing number of actions to reduce current fragmentation of natural systems as well as a growing demand for tools to predict and evaluate the effect of changes in the landscape on connectivity in the natural world. Recent studies used ‘least-cost’ modelling (available as a toolbox in GIS-systems) to calculate ‘effective distance’, a measure for distance modified with the cost to move between habitat patches based on detailed geographical information on the landscape as well as behavioural aspects of the organisms studied. We applied the method to a virtual landscape and a small scaled agricultural system subject to different scenarios in a land re-allotment project. We discuss the importance of technical aspects and ecological assumption underlying this modelling method. The model is shown to be a flexible tool to model functional connectivity in the study of the relation between landscape and mobility of organisms as well as in scenario building and evaluation in wild life protection projects and applied land management projects. Since ‘effective distance’ has the same units as Euclidean distance (m), this effective distance may be a straightforward way to include landscape and behavioural aspects in other models which include distance as a measure for isolation. We show the importance of the ‘ecological’ quality of the input maps and the choice of relevant landscape features and resistance values.     

Landscape ecological planning process for wetland, waterfowl, and farmland conservation

A landscape ecological planning process (LEP process) is described that addresses the issues of rice production and wetland habitat conservation on privately owned rice farms in Texas. The LEP process was used to evaluate proposed land-use management plans based on alternative policies for the next US Farm Bill, which would be in effect from 2003 to 2009. A system simulation model, geographic information systems (GIS) model based on expert knowledge, as well as expert opinion, were used to evaluate uncertainty about the effects of these plans and policies on different types of farms and the quality of winter habitat of lesser snow geese. The models simulated shifts in land-use, rice and cattle production, farm profitability, and use of habitat by geese. Simulation results suggested that the level of federal subsidies for all policies influenced the continuation of rice production from 2003 to 2009. In addition, the size of the farm influenced whether rice production continued until 2009. The smaller farms were more sensitive to decreases in federal subsidies than larger farms because smaller farms received less income from goose hunting leases. Winter habitat for lesser snow geese was reduced in terms of patch size and nearest neighbor distance when rice production was discontinued by 2009 for all policies. Agricultural policy experts, who were familiar with the study sites, selected the modified version of the conservation policy as the example that would most benefit farmers and geese. The experts emphasized that their policy would offer farmers more flexibility to manage their farms, to diversify their incomes, and to be good land stewards.     

La Huerta de Murcia: landscape guidelines for a peri-urban territory

Some of the results of the landscape planning study recently carried out for the Metropolitan Area of Murcia in south-eastern Spain, specifically for the areas of the Vega Media del Segura and the Huerta de Murcia, are presented. From the perspective of landscape as heritage, understood as a quality of the entire territory, methodological criteria are contributed for the analysis of landscapes for spatial planning purposes, as well as the result of trends, values and problems affecting the landscapes of peri-urban agriculture. Public participation is highlighted throughout, and proposals are made for the preservation and management of the landscape as a resource contributing to the sustainability of the metropolitan area.     

The feeling for landscape — a German example

A feeling for landscape was considered essential for the creation of a landscape close-to-nature in Germany during National Socialism. Examples of the connections between landscape, race and nation, (a race-specific understanding of landscape) and the outstanding position German man was considered to have, are given. The far reaching and disastrous consequences of such connections and their integration into a political concept are briefly sketched.     

Landscape heterogeneity—a quantitative criterion for landscape reconstruction

The North Bohemian brown coal basin is located near to the frontier between the Czech Republic and Germany. It is a part of wider region known as the Black Triangle. Open-cast coal mining has caused total destruction of original ecosystems, as well as changes of relief and also land-use changes in the surrounding areas. Specialists call this situation landscape memory loss.Reconstruction of a landscape or creation of a new landscape is very difficult in areas where mining has come to an end. One of the most difficult issue is the reintroduction of target species. Recent studies suggest that large inhospitable patches are avoided by animals, and that many species need more than one landscape element in proximity. Generally, species diversity is greater in heterogeneous landscapes. Greater landscape heterogeneity also provides better conditions for fast reintroduction of target species into the wasteland.This paper presents a case study on land use—the recultivation of landscape in the Chabarovice area (1400 ha). Landscape heterogeneity is the quantitative criterion for the final proposal of a new landscape mosaic. Three comparative areas were analyzed—two of them adjacent to the study area (present state), while the other analyzed the historical state of the study area in 1842.The information gained from the studies of adjacent areas, and from the historic study of the study area itself, was not used in order to reconstruct the area as it had once been, nor even in order to reproduce a situation similar to that in nearby areas. The aim was to take advantage of the opportunity to improve the environment in the study area considerably, and to do so a way that will benefit biodiversity throughout the whole region.     

A GIS-based multi-criteria decision making approach to forest conservation planning at a landscape scale: a case study in the Kinabalu Area, Sabah, Malaysia

This paper presents a geographic information system (GIS)-based multi-criteria decision making approach for forest conservation planning at a landscape scale. This approach enables decision makers to evaluate the relative priorities of conserving forest areas based on a set of preferences, criteria and indicators for the area. Compromise programming techniques are used to integrate the forest conservation priority maps of decision groups where a separation distance is calculated. A clustering analysis was applied to identify potential conservation areas as the basis of delineating potential new protected areas. The study was conducted in the Kinabalu area, Sabah, Malaysia where two polygons neighboring the Kinabalu Park were delineated. A group of 11 polygons totaling 2050 ha has also been detected in the western part of Kinabalu Park. The study recommends the inclusion of a forest polygon (359 ha) neighboring Kinabalu Park and another (4361 ha) to the west of the park as new protected areas. A green corridor linking the potential new protected areas and Kinabalu Park should also be constructed to facilitate animal movement and interaction. This study reveals that riparian vegetation is an important aspect to forest conservation and the legislation to protect riparian zones should be strengthened.     

Biotope patterns in urban areas: a conceptual model integrating biodiversity issues in spatial planning

We present a model that considers the spatial aspects of biodiversity in urban planning. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is used as a study area. The model comprises three steps of strategic selection: (1) information sources; (2) target biotopes, and (3) presentation strategies adapted to priorities in spatial planning. A classification system based on the interpretation of colour infrared aerial photographs was developed. Established methods for the study of woodland and agricultural landscapes were merged and modified in order to fit the present objectives. Ecologically valuable biotopes were found both in green and built-up areas. The methods developed have been used in the comprehensive planning of Stockholm to designate the core areas and the zones in the surrounding landscape with different demands for spatial planning. The model to support urban planners with context-sensitive planning tools was sufficiently flexible for the adaptation to the conditions of each individual area and the level of detail suited to the planning situation. It also provided information on the effects of fragmentation, creating a platform for meaningful follow-up work.     

Evaluation of five landscape-level metrics for measuring the effects of urbanization on landscape structure: the case of Tucson, Arizona, USA

Landscape-level metrics can be used to measure changes in landscape structure over time. Four landscape-level metrics and rank-size distributions were used to describe changes in landscape structure caused by urbanization in a portion of the Tucson, Arizona metropolitan area between 1984 and 1998. This analysis describes what each metric conveys regarding how urbanization affects landscape structure. It also compares the efficacy of rank-size distributions with the other metrics. Results indicate all five metrics provided information about a specific aspect of landscape structure including patch size, shape, or dispersion. Results indicate that rank-size distributions and their scaling exponents are useful because they provide information not available from the other metrics. Rank-size distributions describe the patch-size scaling properties of specific land-cover types, the relative effect of large and small patches on the distribution of patch sizes, the magnitude of change in patch size, where patch sizes differ from what is expected by the regression model, and the range of patch sizes displaying fractal patterns.