Verbal interaction and supervisor perception in counselor supervision.

20 dyads of masters-level counseling practicum students (aged 23–52 yrs) and their supervisors (aged 28–51 yrs) were audiotaped during 1 supervisory session. The counselor trainee's and supervisor's verbal interaction in supervision was rated using a 15-category system for analyzing supervisor–teacher interaction. These scores were correlated with the trainee's perceptions of the supervisor on the interpersonal influence characteristics of expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness, as measured by a supervisor rating form. 45 Pearson correlations between measures were calculated, with 8 comparisons reaching the .05 level of significance. Significant relationships were found between some categories of verbal behavior and 1 or more perceived supervisor characteristics. It is concluded that a moderate relationship exists between the nature of the interaction in supervision and perceptions the counselor forms about the supervisor. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of experience on supervisor planning.

In a study of planning activities, 10 inexperienced undergraduates and 17 experienced supervisors from various settings audiotaped a 15-min planning session, using a thinking aloud technique, in preparation for supervising another person. Experienced supervisors generated more planning statements, and more of these statements concerned the supervisee than did statements generated by inexperienced or graduate student supervisors. Comments are made about these results in relation to the educational literature and counselor development, and recommendations are made for counseling research and supervision. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Do supervisors modify psychotherapy supervision according to supervisees' levels of experience?

Administered a questionnaire concerning goals, expectations, and procedures of supervision to 10 supervisors who had 1st-yr practicum students, 13 supervisors with 2nd-yr externship students, and 8 supervisors with interns who had at least 2 yrs prior clinical experience as psychotherapists. All Ss had an average of 10 yrs clinical experience and 5 yrs experience as supervisors. Results show no significant differences among the 3 groups of Ss who were supervising trainees with different levels of clinical development and skill, suggesting that supervisors may not modify their manner of providing supervision in accordance with supervisees' levels of experience. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensionality of supervisor roles: Supervisors' perceptions of supervision.

Used a multidimensional scaling (MDS) research design (a) to assess the salient dimensions that supervisors rely on in their perceptions of supervisor roles and (b) to test empirically J. M. Bernard's (1979) 2-dimensional model and the unidimensional developmental model of supervision of J. M. Littrell et al (1979). 19 supervisors (mean age 31 yrs) of counselor trainees made the dissimilarity judgments of the 9 supervision role–functions (MDS stimuli) adapted from Bernard's model. Three dimensions with multiple interpretations emerged from the MDS solution. The dimensions could be interpreted based on supervisor roles, supervision environment, supervision function, and characteristics of supervisor roles. Results partially support Bernard's model and provide minimal support for the developmental model of Littrell et al. Both models were found to be rather simplistic because neither model accounts for the 3 dimensions. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of belief systems on subjects' perceptions of empathy, warmth, and genuineness.

Investigated the relationship between 174 female and 96 male undergraduates' (aged 14–45 yrs) belief systems, gender, and perceptions of a Rogerian counseling session. Belief systems were assessed using a belief system test, after which Ss watched, by means of a sound video recording, a 30-min counseling intervention by C. R. Rogers. Ss rated the counselor using the Relationship Inventory, a client satisfaction scale, and 5 questions composed by the authors. Ss' beliefs influenced their perceptions of therapeutic variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between scores on the Omnibus Personality Inventory and counselor trainee effectiveness.

Compared the scores obtained on the Omnibus Personality Inventory by groups of relatively effective and relatively ineffective counselor trainees. The trainees (61 students in their 1st yr of a counseling psychology program) completed the tests prior to their 1st practicum experience and were evaluated by their practicum supervisors (PhD or master's-level counselors with more than 5 yrs of experience at supervision) at the end of each of their practica. Ss were classified as relatively effective, relatively ineffective, or indeterminant (ns?=?32, 30, and 12, respectively) on the basis of their practicum supervisor's evaluations. The scores of the relatively effective and relatively ineffective trainees were compared using 1-way analyses of variance. Data revealed significant differences in the personality characteristics of the groups. The relevance of these findings for the selection of counselor trainees is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences among supervisees at different levels of training: Implications for a developmental model of supervision.

Three studies examined differences across 3 counselor trainee levels (beginning practicum, advanced practicum, and doctoral interns) with regard to (a) the interpersonal influence process between the supervisor and supervisee (Study 1), (b) trainees' perceptions of specific supervisor behaviors contributing to supervisory effectiveness (Study 2), and (c) trainees' perceptions of the most important or critical incidents that occur within supervision during a semester (Study 3). Ss were 58 beginning practicum students, 51 advanced practicum students, and 36 doctoral interns. Overall results are congruent with a developmental model of supervision and suggest that across trainee levels, variables related to the interpersonal influence process differ; different types of supervisor behaviors appear to be effective at different levels of supervision; and different types of critical incidents are reported within the supervision process. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of alcohol-related expectancies in adolescents: Separating pharmacological from social-learning influences.

Constructed an adolescent expectancy questionnaire for use with 1,580 Ss aged 12–19 yrs. Expectancy factor structure was determined separately in 12–24 yr olds, 15–26 yr olds, and 17–29 yr olds, and in low- vs high-experience drinkers. Six expectancy factors repeated across all age groups: Physical Tension Reduction, Diversion from Worry, Increased Interpersonal Power, Magical Transformation of Experiences, Enhanced Pleasure, and Modification of Social–Emotional Behavior. Five of these were present in Ss with little or no drinking experience. Expectancy factor content became more homogeneous with increasing drinking experience and age. Results indicate that relatively well-developed expectancies exist prior to alcohol usage, but that pharmacological experience with alcohol crystallizes existing expectancies. The factors extracted were remarkably consistent with those from factor analytic investigations of alcohol expectancies in adults. Findings suggest that intervention to decrease the risk of adult problem drinking must begin with children. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client affective self-disclosure and counselor experience on counselor verbal behavior and perceptions.

60 untrained, trained, and professional counselors (average age 20 yrs, 26 yrs, and 38 yrs, respectively) responded to an audio presentation of client affective self-disclosures consisting of either high or low intimacy content. Quality and type of response were measured. Ss then completed a reaction form to assess their clinical impressions of the client. No intimacy effects were found. In contrast, consistent differences for experience occurred. Results indicate that untrained Ss made lower quality responses than either trained or professional Ss with no differences between professionals and counselors-in-training. In terms of response type, untrained Ss relied on direct guidance and silence; trained Ss preferred reflection, and professionals utilized silence, open question, and reflection. When silence as an initial response was removed from consideration, the preferred mode of responding for untrained and trained Ss was strengthened. In contrast, professionals utilized 2 responses (reflection and open question) equally. Finally, the counselor reaction data indicated that untrained Ss had less liking for the client as a person and viewed the client as less motivated to change than trained or professional Ss. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sexual orientation similarity and counselor experience level on gay men's and lesbians' perceptions of counselors.

Investigated the effects of sexual orientation similarity of counselor and client as well as counselor experience level on perceptions of counselors by gay men and lesbians. After receiving pre-session information in which the variables of counselor sexual orientation (gay male/lesbian or heterosexual) and experience level (experienced vs inexperienced) were manipulated, 40 gay male and 40 lesbian Ss in parallel experiments viewed different 15-min videotapes of same-sex counselor–client pairs and then completed the Counselor Rating Form (A. Barak and M. B. LaCrosse, 1975). Results indicated that the lesbian Ss rated the experienced therapists, both lesbian and heterosexual, as more expert; there were no other significant main or interaction effects. The results suggest that sexual orientation of the counselor may be a less salient concern of gay men and lesbians when the therapeutic issue is not sexual in nature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical supervision: An intensive case study.

Used a rigorous case study methodology to examine one supervisory dyad's work together during one semester. The supervisee was a 33-yr-old female doctoral student with about 7 yrs counseling experience; the supervisor was a 41-yr-old male counseling psychologist with 12 yrs supervision experience. The "best–worst" strategy of several recent researchers, multiple sources of qualitative and quantitative process data, and the perspectives both of the Ss and of observers were used. Findings provide hypotheses to guide future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A laboratory study of the effects of varying levels of counselor eye contact on client-focused and problem-focused counseling styles.

Studied the effects of varying durations of counselor eye contact over 2 counseling conditions: (a) client-focused counseling style, defined as the counselor focusing on the client's thoughts and feelings about the presenting problem; and (b) problem-focused counseling style, defined as the counselor focusing on the problems themselves. 60 female undergraduates observed videotaped segments of counseling interviews depicting 1 of 6 conditions involving either client-focused or problem-focused counseling styles and either low, medium, or high counselor eye contact. Ss then rated the counselor on 3 dimensions of counselor effectiveness: genuineness, competence, and self-confidence. Results show that counselors using both counseling styles were rated progressively higher on all 3 dimensions from the low- to the medium- to the high-gaze condition. In the problem-focused condition, the counselor was rated lower on the genuineness factor than either competence or self-confidence. When broken down by gaze levels, these differences did not hold up for the high level of eye contact. There were no significant differences between counselor ratings on the 3 dimensions of counselor effectiveness for the client-focused condition. Results are discussed with respect to related research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training activities and styles of beginning supervisors: A survey.

Used the Psychotherapy Supervision Questionnaire to assess activities and difficulties of 75 psychotherapy supervisors (aged 23–57 yrs) with 2 yrs or less experience in supervision. 29 Ss were employed in university graduate school programs; the remaining 46 were employed in predoctoral internship sites. There were expected differences in the level and the number of trainees supervised by the 2 groups, and they differed markedly in their theoretical orientations, with Ss from internship sites placing greater emphasis on psychodynamic approaches. All Ss reported frequent difficulties with perceived trainee resistance, with understanding the presented material, and with suggesting interventions. 32% had no formal training for supervision prior to beginning supervision. An overwhelming majority expressed interest in receiving more training in supervision. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical supervision in Canadian academic and service settings: The importance of education, training, and workplace support for supervisor development.

A national sample of Canadian psychologists who provide clinical supervision in academic or service settings (n?=?156) was surveyed regarding their background preparation for clinical supervision, satisfaction with current supervisory load, and workplace support for supervisory activities and development. With respect to supervisor training and development, the authors found that (1) almost two-thirds of the Ss received no formal training in supervision, (2) most initially felt inadequately prepared to supervise trainees, (3) subsequent self-study of supervision was perceived as helpful, and (4) self-study was associated with administrative encouragement for professional development. Exploration of supervisory load and workplace support showed that (1) a large majority of Ss were satisfied with their load, (2) satisfaction did not differ across academic and service settings, and (3) supervisors in service settings were more satisfied with opportunities for peer support around supervision. Ss called for more training in supervision and increased amounts of time on the job to devote to supervision. The need for increased training in supervision at all levels, continuing professional education, and workplace enhancements to facilitate supervision are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategic self-presentation in supervision.

A counselor trainee with a defensive self-presentational style is one who takes credit for the client's improvement or blames the client for deterioration. Conversely, a trainee with a counterdefensive style attributes improvement to the client or accepts personal responsibility for deterioration. 80 experienced (1–25 yrs) supervisors heard a tape of a simulated supervisory session in which a female trainee summarized her ongoing treatment of a moderately depressed client. Ss heard the trainee (a) describe how, recently, the client's depression had either lifted (improvement condition) or worsened (deterioration condition); and (b) attribute this change either to her own efforts or to the client. Ss then completed several measures, including an abbreviated version of the Counselor Rating Form. The counterdefensive trainee was judged to be somewhat more socially skilled than the defensive trainee, but the defensive trainee was rated as significantly more self-confident. Regardless of the trainee's explanation, however, when the client's depression lifted, the trainee was viewed as significantly more competent, self-confident, expert, and attractive than she was when the client's depression worsened. Ss assigned more responsibility to the client for improvement than for deterioration, but this pattern was reversed for the trainee and supervisor. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisees' perceptions of their development: A test of the counselor complexity model.

Examined the perceptions of 91 trainees in counseling and clinical psychology regarding their development of counseling and supervision behaviors. Ss were from 8 geographically diverse training programs and were categorized into 3 levels on the basis of a composite of their degree of experience in graduate school, counseling, and received supervision. Ss' responses to an instrument designed to assess constructs relevant to the 2nd author's (see record 1981-06282-001) counselor complexity model were examined across these experience levels. Results indicate that higher-level Ss reported greater self-awareness, autonomy, acquisition of counseling skills and understanding of theory than did Ss at a lower experience level. Implications for developmental models of supervision are discussed. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A study of rehabilitation counselors: Locus of control and attitudes toward the poor.

Studied the interrelationships among locus of control, attitudes toward the poor, attitudes toward the supervisor, job satisfaction, and the performance ratings of 90 practicing rehabilitation counselors (mean age 36 yrs). Ss were surveyed with a battery of attitude questionnaires, including Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale and the MacDonald Poverty Scale. Results indicate that Ss with an internal orientation had more positive attitudes toward the poor than Ss with an external orientation. It was further observed that internally oriented Ss received higher performance ratings than the externally oriented. Internal orientation was associated with higher job morale, greater job satisfaction, and more positive attitudes toward supervisors. Implications of the findings are discussed in the context of client-counselor relationships and of the consequence that these data may have in counselor preservice and inservice training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of trait labels in counseling supervision by experienced and inexperienced supervisors.

On the basis of attribution theory, it was hypothesized that as supervisors gain experience at counseling, they would attribute their supervisee's counseling behaviors less often to counselor traits than would supervisors who have little or no counseling experience. 10 min of an audiotaped counseling session were presented to 82 Ss in 4 groups: undergraduate psychology students, master's degree students in counseling and clinical psychology, post-master's degree students, and post-PhD counselors. The Ss then rated the degree to which the counselor could be described by 8 trait labels. As predicted, Ss with more counseling experience made weaker trait attributions than did those with little or no experience. It is suggested that this result is due to the increased empathy of experienced counselors. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)