Client and counselor characteristics and engagement in counseling.

Examined relations among various client and counselor characteristics and engagement in counseling for more than 1 session with 5 female and 4 male practicum counselors and 203 of their clients (128 women, 75 men) who had come to a university counseling center for the 1st time. After the initial interview, clients rated counselors' interest, helpfulness, competence, warmth, and genuineness; counselors rated clients' verbalness, intelligence, capacity for insight, likability, and the severity of clients' problems. Clients also indicated the extent to which counselors identified concerns for which the clients did not initially seek counseling. Findings show that 71 clients returned for more than 1 counseling session. Counselors' perceptions of clients as more disturbed and counselors' desire to see the clients were positively associated with clients' returning for counseling after intake. Identification of concerns for clients by counselors at intake was also positively related to engagement in counseling. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor-client agreement on session impact.

We propose a new framework for understanding studies of counselor–client agreement about their counseling. The framework includes five factors: the scope of counseling being studied (process, impact, or outcome), the dimension (index) being rated (in this study, session Depth, Smoothness, Positivity, or Arousal), the measure used to assess agreement (correlations or absolute differences), the level at which the analysis is conducted (session, client, or counselor), and the type of agreement—(a) consensus, the similarity of counselors' own ratings to clients' own ratings; (b) counselor awareness, the similarity of counselors' perceptions of their clients to clients' own ratings; (c) client awareness, the similarity of counselors' own ratings to clients' perceptions of their counselors; and (d) matched awareness, the similarity of counselors' perceptions of their clients to clients' perceptions of their counselors. In a study of session impact (scope), degree of agreement was found to vary substantially with each of the other factors—type of agreement, dimension rated, measure of agreement, and level of analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential helpfulness of counselor verbal response modes.

28 counselor–client dyads (analog sample consisting of 15 graduate students and faculty and 28 undergraduates) and 16 client–counselor dyads (counseling sample) rated the helpfulness of particular counselor responses in just-completed counseling sessions, using Interpersonal Process Recall. In the counseling sample, counselors also rated the helpfulness of the same responses. The responses were measured for type of response made by objective raters, clients, and counselors. Interpretations received the highest helpfulness ratings from both client and counselor. Advisements were rated as slightly more helpful than nonadvisements, and questions were rated as slightly less helpful than nonquestions. However, counselor response modes account for only a small proportion of the variance in helpfulness ratings, which points out the need for research on contextual variables and response mode subtypes. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client-specific counselor self-efficacy in novice counselors: Relation to perceptions of session quality.

Two versions of a counselor self-efficacy (CSE) measure were administered to 110 prepracticum counselors: a general version, assessing perceived capability to perform basic helping skills and manage the session process with clients generally; and a client-specific version, tapping capability to perform the same behaviors with a specific, current client. Client-specific CSE was found to (a) relate moderately to strongly with general CSE over the course of four counseling sessions, (b) increase significantly over sessions, and (c) account for unique variance in counselors' evaluations of the quality of their sessions. Although it was not a useful direct predictor of clients' session ratings, higher client-specific CSE was associated with greater congruence between counselors' and clients' perceptions of session quality. Implications for further research and training are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of counselors' smoking behavior and the intimacy level of clients' presenting concerns on nonsmokers' perceptions of counselors.

Counselor smoking and the interaction between the extent of counselor smoking and the level of intimacy of clients' presenting concerns were hypothesized to influence perceptions of counselors and expectancies for counseling. Nonsmoking female participants (N?=?270) observed a videotaped interview in a design that crossed 3 levels of intensity of counselor smoking, 3 levels of client presenting problem intimacy, and 2 female counselors. No interactions were observed, but counselor smoking exerted a negative impact on participants' impressions of counselors' characteristics and counselors' competence. Fewer differences were related to intimacy levels of clients' presenting problems. The impact of counselor smoking was discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive mediation in person-centered and rational-emotive therapy.

Relations among counselor and client cognitive and behavioral variables were examined in relation to counselor and client ratings of counseling effectiveness. Unlike previous cognitive-mediational process research on counseling, the conceptual and coding systems used were tailored specifically to two different counseling approaches. Data were obtained from videotapes of 20 counseling sessions and from 40 stimulated recall interviews with both counselors and clients following the counseling sessions. Ten of the sessions followed a rational-emotive format; 10 followed a person-centered format. Both therapeutic conditions consisted of two dyads, each studied experimentally during 5 sessions selected from brief counseling interventions. Results indicated that variables composed from both cognitive and behavioral data predicted participant ratings of counseling effectiveness more than did behavioral variables alone. As in previous research, such relations seemed to depend on a strong negative correlation between counselor transparency (accurate client perceptions of counselor intentions) and participant ratings of counseling effectiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Three methods in measuring the therapeutic process: Clients' and counselors' constructions of the therapeutic process versus actual therapeutic events.

Explored 3 methods in examining the therapeutic process that (1) assessed how clients construct and interpret the change process and counselors' behavior over time, (2) assessed the content and valence of clients' and counselors' most memorable thoughts immediately after the session, and (3) compared the clients' and counselors' memorable thoughts with the actual content of the counseling sessions. A single-S design was used to examine 3 counselor–client dyads across 7 counseling sessions. The results provided preliminary but rather encouraging support of 2 methodologies, Guided Inquiry and thought listing, that assess how clients and counselors construct and interpret aspects of the therapeutic process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling session impact as viewed by novice counselors and their clients.

The Session Evaluation Questionnaire (SEQ) was used to measure the perspectives of 17 graduate-student counselors and their 72 17–39 yr old clients on 942 individual counseling sessions along 2 evaluative dimensions—depth and smoothness—and 2 dimensions of postsession mood—positivity and arousal. A components-of-variance analysis showed that, from both perspectives, SEQ ratings varied greatly from session to session; ratings were only modestly predictable from differences among counselors or among counselor–client dyads. However, averages across 6–20 sessions permitted adequately reliable differentiation among dyads, for example, for comparisons with outcome measures. Correlations between corresponding counselor and client dimensions ranged from moderate to negligible, whether calulated across sessions, across clients, or across counselors, Novice counselors' judgments of session depth and value may have had little relation to their clients' evaluations. On the other hand, counselors' comfort in sessions and postsession positive mood were moderately predictive of client reactions. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empirical investigation of the cognitive mediational paradigm for research on counseling.

Examined relations among counselor and client cognitions, behaviors, and ratings in 29 counseling sessions involving 10 different counselor–client pairs, using stimulated recall and content analysis. Clients were university students; there were 4 counselors with 7–25 yrs' experience and 3 who were counseling interns. The design of the study permitted assessments of the impact of counselor experience (novice vs experienced) and stage of counseling (early, middle, and end) on these variables. Consistency in various parts of the sequential chain of counselor intention (counselor behavior, client perceptions of counselor intention and behavior, client cognitive processing, and client behavior) was lower for interpersonal cognitive than for interpersonal behavioral or intrapersonal cognitive–behavioral links. Consistency across different elements in this chain was observed to account for a significant proportion of the variance in counselor ratings of session effectiveness. Consistent, interpretable patterns observed across counselor intentions, counselor behaviors, and client cognitive processing are discussed. Relatively few effects of stage of counseling or of counselor experience were observed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor intentionality: An emerging view of process and performance.

Contends that intentionality, viewed as a trait related to counselor functioning and performance, is an emerging perceptual construct that is important for counseling research. Differing definitions of intentionality focus on bipolarity, unintentional functions, and being trapped in one intentionality. Empirical studies have shown that counselor behavior is perceived as counselor intention and that counselor ratings of counselor response helpfulness were not predictive of client perceptions; client ratings were not predictive of counselor perceptions of response helpfulness either, but trained observers significantly predicted both client and counselor ratings. It is suggested that a more clearly defined and measured construct of intentionality could be used to distinguish levels of professional functioning in counselors. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal influence process in real-life counseling: Investigating client perceptions, counselor experience level, and counselor power over time.

Examined the interpersonal influence process within an actual counseling context over an average of 8 sessions. Counselors were either beginning or advanced practicum students or doctoral interns (n?=?27); clients were 31 students who sought counseling at a university center. Before and after counseling Ss completed the Counselor Rating Form, the Expectations about Counseling measure, and the Counselor Perceptions Questionnaire. Results indicate that (a) the actual counselor experience level did not affect client perceptions of the counselor; (b) perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness changed over time, but not in the same direction across counselors; (c) different levels of client need did not affect clients' perceptions of counselor characteristics; and (d) counselors rated as highly attractive indicated they had more therapeutic power over clients than counselors rated as moderately attractive. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender in the context of supportive and challenging religious counseling interventions.

This study explored an interactive framework for understanding how gender influences the counseling process in religious counseling. Participants (N ?=?314) viewed 1 of 16 videotapes in which either a male or female counselor interacted with a male or female client about a religious problem. Counselors either supported or challenged the clients' religious values. It was found that female counselors were perceived as more religious and effective than were their male counterparts. Multiple regression was used to demonstrate that perception of counselors' religiousness partially mediates the influence of gender on perceived effectiveness of the counselor. Results illustrate that the effects of gender on the counseling process can be predicted with an interactive model. Participants' religiousness also interacted with intervention type to influence their perceptions of the counselors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 34(3) of Journal of Counseling Psychology (see record 2008-10749-001). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft.] Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor dogmatism, willingness to disclose, and clients' empathy ratings.

Assessed counselee perceptions of counselor interpersonal affectiveness, using the responses of 51 college-student counselees who evaluated 1 of 6 counselors on the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory (BLRI). To test the hypothesis that the concepts of dogmatism, authoritarianism, and the closed person are synonymous, these concepts were studied in relationship to counselors' degree of disclosure by having the 6 counselors complete the BLRI and Rokeach Dogmatism Scale. Findings suggest that dogmatism is an unstable characteristic of counselors during counseling. Low-dogmatic counselors appeared to show higher levels of psychological insight during counseling than high-dogmatic counselors. It is suggested that the psychological state of the counselee may determine to a great extent the effectiveness of high-dogmatic counselors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy": Correction to Barkham and Shapiro.

Reports an error in "Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy" by Michael Barkham and David A. Shapiro (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1986[Jan], Vol 33[1], 3-10). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1986-15306-001.) Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A time series model of the working alliance: A key process in short-term psychoanalytic counseling.

The relationship between the counselor and client's perception of the working alliance across sessions was investigated in short-term psychoanalytic counseling. Prior research suggests that counselors play a large role in clients' perception of the working alliance. A time-series analysis allowed specific processes based upon prior research and theory to be tested. The results illustrate a time-bound process of counselor and client perceptions of the working alliance. The findings provide further evidence that counselors play a major role in clients' perception of the working alliance and that this impact carries over into the subsequent sessions in short-term psychoanalytic counseling. Implications are discussed and avenues for future research are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black and White student preferences for counselor roles.

28 Black and 28 White students from 2 university programs viewed a brief videotape of a counseling sesson in 1 of 4 conditions defined by (a) 2 female counselors (1 Black, 1 White); and (b) 2 counselor roles (active, passive). Analysis of Ss' ratings of counselor performances reveal (a) no differences among conditions in perceived attentiveness or friendliness; (b) significant differences between roles in perceptions of counselor behavior (as intended); (c) significantly higher ratings of competence and helpfulness for counselors in the active vs the passive role, regardless of counselor or S role; and (d) a main effect for counselor, which could not be unequivocally attributed either to counselor role performance or to counselor role. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The practice of self-compassion in counseling: A narrative inquiry.

As counselors we often offer compassion to our clients and support them in cultivating it for themselves; however, this aspect of counselor development may be absent in our own self-care practices. How do counselors cultivate self-compassion given the myriad of challenges that arise in their practice? Although there is a wealth of research on counselor self-care, very little of this research addresses the construct of self-compassion as a means of enhancing counselors' well-being and mitigating the effects of job-related stress. A narrative research design was used to investigate how 15 experienced counselors practice self-compassion in counseling. Themes that emerged in this study, based on the experiences of the participants, provide important information for training and educating practitioners in the areas of self-care and burnout prevention, and enhance our understanding of the role of self-compassion in the practice of counseling and psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor race and experience effects on black clients.

Investigated how black freshmen Ss rated counselor effectiveness and if these ratings reflected the race or experience level of the counselors. 17 Ss participated in initial interviews with 4 counselors, 2 black counselors, 1 experienced and 1 inexperienced, and 2 white counselors, with the same experience differences as the black counselors. Upon completion of the 4 interviews, Ss rated each of the counselors on 3 counselor dimensions and indicated those counselors they would be willing to return to for future counseling. Unlike previous research findings, Ss did not show a preference for the counselors as a function of race but did show a preference as a function of the counselors' experience level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor's reputation: An important precounseling variable for adolescents.

The purpose of this research was to determine the precounseling effects of reputational cues on high school students' preferences for counselors and perceptions of the counselor's credibility and interpersonal attractiveness. In two separate but similar experiments, 485 students each saw one of seven experimental conditions presented on videotape. On three videotapes, high school students delivered positive, neutral, or negative reputational cues about a male or a female counselor. Three additional videotapes contained the same positive, neutral, or negative reputational cues and the counselor in a brief counseling session. One videotape featured only the counseling session. Students' preferences for and perceptions of the counselors were significantly different from each other in the positive, neutral, and negative reputational cue conditions. The addition of the counseling session following negative reputational cues resulted in much more positive preferences for and perceptions of the counselors. Reputational cues functioned as an important precounseling variable in that the cues strongly influenced students' preferences and perceptions prior to counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)