Effects of paradoxical and self-control directives in counseling.

32 students who reported having a serious and recurring procrastination problem were randomly assigned to either of 2 directive interview conditions (paradoxical or self-control) or to a no-interview control condition. Dependent measures included weekly S ratings of problem frequency, perceptions of problem controllability, expectation to change, and satisfaction with behavior, as well as a measure of Ss' perceptions of the interviewer. Results after 4 wks indicate that both directive groups exhibited generally greater improvement over time than controls and that the opposing forms of direction promoted different change patterns on self-report measures of problem frequency and controllability. Specifically, Ss exposed to paradoxical directives reported a sharper rate of change in their procrastination without viewing their problem behavior as significantly more controllable. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of positive reframing and paradoxical directives in counseling for negative emotions.

Examined the effects of 2 paradoxical directives on negative emotions of 46 undergraduates whose Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores ranged from 10 to 30 and who identified themselves as experiencing negative emotions that they wanted to change. According to the 2?×?2 design of the 4-wk study, Ss received either positive reframing statements or no reframing statements and either paradoxical or nonparadoxical directives in a 2-interview treatment. Three male and 3 female counselors delivered the treatment in all conditions. Change in negative emotions was measured by pre–post differences on the BDI and on a self-report mood scale. Results indicate that positive reframing produced greater reduction in negative emotions than no reframing, although negative emotions were reduced in all conditions. The 2 directives did not differ in their effects on either of the measures. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selective recall of positive and negative feedback, self-control behaviors, and depression.

Tested 2 sets of hypotheses, derived from cognitive–behavioral theories of depression, that (a) compared to a sample of nondepressed controls, depressed Ss would underestimate the frequency of reinforcement and overestimate the frequency of punishment received during an ambiguous laboratory task; and (b) when given the opportunity to self-reinforce or self-punish, depressed Ss would self-reinforce less often and self-punish more often than controls. Three of these predictions were supported. In an experiment with 24 depressed and 21 nondepressed undergraduates (Beck Depression Inventory), depressed Ss recalled less positive and more negative feedback than controls. As expected, these differences were significant only at a high rate of reinforcement and at a low rate of punishment. In the latter condition, however, depressed Ss were accurate in their recall, while nondepressed Ss underestimated the frequency of negative feedback. Depressed Ss self-reinforced less often than controls, but there were no differences in rates of self-punishment. Implications for cognitive and behavioral theories of depression are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A self-control behavior therapy program for depression.

A behavior therapy program based on a self-control model of depression was evaluated against a nonspecific group therapy condition and a waiting list control group, 28 depressed volunteer female Ss ages 18–48 were administered a psychological test battery including the Beck Depression Inventory and the MMPI and randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 experimental conditions. The experimental therapy procedure consisted of a 6-wk group treatment program that sequentially focused on modifying self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-control skills. In each phase specific self-control principles were discussed in conjunction with behavioral homework assignments involving activity schedules. The self-control therapy Ss showed significantly greater reduction in depression on self-report and behavioral measures. Self-control Ss also showed greater improvement in overall pathology on the MMPI. There was some evidence that self-control Ss improved on specific measures of self-control behavior. A 6-wk follow-up generally confirmed maintenance of improvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reframing and restraining directives in the treatment of clinical depression.

We tested the effects of reframing and restraining directives on depression of high- and low-reactant clients. Reframing was more effective than restraining or control, and level of reactance had no effect. Restraining did not differ from control. Subjects were 74 moderately to severely depressed outpatients. Results are discussed in light of the compliance–defiance model of paradoxical interventions and psychological reactance theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between loneliness and depression: A structural equation analysis.

Research on loneliness has been hampered by its strong association with depression. The 2 states frequently co-occur, and measures of the 2 states are substantially correlated. Inability to manipulate experimentally loneliness or depression makes it difficult to untangle the causal influence of one on the other. The combination of longitudinal design and structural equation methodology is proposed as a solution to this general problem. Measures of loneliness and depression (e.g., the Beck Depression Inventory and Profile of Mood States) were administered to undergraduates at 2 points 5 wks apart. Data from 333 Ss were correlated and analyzed under a succession of structural equation models. Results indicate that loneliness and depression were correlated but clearly different constructs; neither was a direct cause of the other, although both probably share some common origins; both were highly stable over the 5-wk period. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral and characterological attributional styles as predictors of depression and loneliness: Review, refinement, and test.

The literature on self-blame and depression reveals 2 interrelated problems. First, although R. Janoff-Bulman's (see record 1981-01320-001) conceptualizations of self-blame are clear, empirical operationalization is difficult and has resulted in approaches that do not capture the richness of the constructs. Second, past research has produced inconsistent findings. A comprehensive literature review revealed that the inconsistencies are related to the method of assessing attributions. A correlational study, with 2 samples of 680 and 321 undergraduates, designed to more accurately represent the self-blame conceptualization revealed that both behavioral and characterological self-blame contribute uniquely to depression and loneliness. Supplementary results regarding circumstantial attributions and regarding attributional styles for success were presented. Empirical issues regarding possible methodological refinements and effect size, as well as the value of categorical approaches to the study of attributional style were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of prior contractual experiences on self-control in children.

Studied the relationship between adult-child contractual interactions and children's self-control. Ss were 95 8-12 yr old girls who performed an arm-extension exercise and a monotonous letter-crossing task. Overall results suggest the utility of a model relating contractual agreements to self-control, although the locus of effects is not completely clear. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and behavioral targets in a self-control therapy program for depression.

One-hundred-four women who met Research Diagnostic Criteria for nonpsychotic, nonbipolar Major Affective Disorder were treated in 21 therapy groups for 10 weekly 1? hr sessions. Three versions of the self-control therapy program for depression, one with a behavioral target, one with a cognitive target, and one with a combined target, were used to treat 7 groups each. All conditions improved significantly and equally on self-report and clinician rating scales of depression. All conditions improved equally on measures of both behavioral and cognitive target variables, and initial level on these variables was not related to outcome. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sociometric testing on children's behavior and loneliness in school.

Examined the effects of a positive and negative peer nomination sociometric measure on children's (a) interactions with peers in general, (b) interactions with preferred and nonpreferred playmates, and (c) ratings of mood and of loneliness in school. Twenty-three 5th graders completed either a peer nomination sociometric or a control task (nominating preferred and nonpreferred school subjects). Before and after the nomination task, observers assessed the affective quality (positive, neutral, or negative) of subjects' peer interactions, and children completed mood and loneliness questionnaires. The procedures were subsequently replicated by administering the sociometric task to the control subjects. Analyses revealed no differences between the peer and control nomination task groups on any of the dependent variables measured. Analyses of pre–post differences provided no evidence of negative effects, suggesting that the risk to elementary-school-age children of completing such a sociometric measure, provided certain procedural guidelines are followed, may be minimal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol, sexual arousal, and self-control.

Investigated the effects of alcohol on self-regulation using delay of gratification for viewing time for an erotic film as the primary dependent measure. Other measures included reflection–impulsivity, locus of control, sexual-guilt scores, and continuous recording of Ss' penile tumescence. Using a balanced placebo design with 50 undergraduate men, Ss were led to believe that they had consumed an alcoholic or a nonalcoholic beverage, and half of each of these 2 groups received either alcohol or tonic water. In addition, the effects of 3 doses of alcohol (placebo, low dose, high dose) were investigated. Instructional set, regardless of drink content, resulted in longer delay times and increased thoughts with sexual content. Although there was no significant relation between increasing dose of alcohol and delay time, there was an interaction between scores on Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale and alcohol dose. Externalizers showed an inverse linear relation between increasing dose of alcohol and delay time. Internalizers showed the opposite trend. Results support other research showing that expectations about drinking can be more potent predictors of behavior than the pharmacological impact of alcohol. Implications for the self-regulation of sexual behavior under the influence of alcohol are discussed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of a self-control manual, rapid smoking, and amount of therapist contact on smoking reduction.

Evaluated a self-help treatment manual consisting of stimulus control, rapid smoking, and coping relaxation techniques. 69 Ss, average age 32.6 yrs, who smoked at least 20 cigarettes/day were randomly assigned to (a) a self-help manual with minimal (2 sessions) therapist contact, (b) a self-help manual with high (7 sessions) therapist contact, (c) a high-therapist-contact rapid smoking condition, or to (d) a high-therapist-contact normal-paced smoking condition. Results indicate that while the overall program was moderately effective, groups did not differ on percentage of baseline smoking or on number of Ss abstinent at posttreatment or 3-mo or 6-mo follow-up. Informant reports of Ss' smoking behavior and carbon monoxide analyses of expired air samples confirmed these findings. Ss in the minimal contact condition generally followed through on their programs, required less therapist time, and were at least as successful as those in other groups in terms of long-term results. Implications for self-help manuals for smoking reduction are discussed. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support versus companionship: Effects on life stress, loneliness, and evaluations by others.

In recent years, much interest has focused on delineating and contrasting specific functions of social relationships that contribute to psychological well-being. Five studies contrasted the roles of companionship and social support in buffering the effects of life stress, in influencing feelings of loneliness and social satisfaction, and in affecting others' judgments. Study 1 analyzed data from a community survey and found that companionship had a main effect on psychological well-being and a buffering effect on minor life stress, whereas social support had only a buffering effect on major life stress. Studies 2, 3, and 4 analyzed data from two college student samples and a different community survey to evaluate how companionship and social support contributed to relationship satisfaction and feelings of loneliness. The results of these studies indicated that companionship was the strongest predictor of these dimensions of social satisfaction. Study 5 used an experimental design to test the hypothesis that a deficit of companionship elicits more negative reactions from others than does a deficit of social support. This hypothesis received partial support. Considered together, the results of these studies suggest that companionship plays a more important and more varied role in sustaining emotional well-being than previous studies have acknowledged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social comparison on facilitative self-control in young children.

Investigated the effects of social comparison upon 96 4- and 5-yr-old children's subsequent task perseveration, attention to task, and self-confidence. Ss, from a middle-class nursery school, were 6 pairs of boys and 6 pairs of girls for each of 4 experimental conditions. Ss in the negative social comparison condition attended less efficiently to, and expressed less confidence in, their ability to solve a difficult wooden-cube puzzle than did a control group of nonsocial comparison children. The length of task perseveration by Ss in the social comparison groups did not differ significantly, although the negative comparison group persisted as long or longer than the positive, equal, or nonsocial comparison groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem drinking behavior in two community-based samples of adults: Influence of gender, coping, loneliness, and depression.

The authors examined the extent to which the relationships among coping, loneliness, depression, and 3 problematic drinking behaviors varied as a function of gender in 2 community-based samples of young adults (19-39 yrs old). Regression analyses revealed that (a) after controlling for the quantity and frequency of alcohol typically consumed, the 3 psychosocial variables were significantly related to frequency of intoxication, binge drinking, and drink tossing behaviors; (b) not all predictors were related to all problem drinking behaviors; (c) the predictors that were significant varied as a function of the 2 cohorts; and (d) with the exception of frequency of intoxication in the younger cohort, the associations between the predictors and problematic drinking behaviors tended to be similar for men and women. Future directions for research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social support and battle intensity on loneliness and breakdown during combat.

A sample of 382 Israeli soldiers who developed combat stress reactions (CSR) during the 1982 Israel-Lebanon War were compared with groups of carefully matched controls who did not develop CSR. Lack of social support from officers was found to be related to greater feelings of loneliness and greater likelihood of CSR in soldiers. Lack of social support from buddies was found to be related to greater loneliness. Intensity of battle was also found to be related to greater feelings of loneliness and increased likelihood of CSR. A path model was tested and supported. The model suggests that battle intensity and officer support lead to CSR directly and indirectly by causing increased feelings of loneliness. Possible cognitive and psychodynamic explanations for the findings are offered. The limitations of making causal statements from retrospective perceptions are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-regulatory processes defend against the threat of death: Effects of self-control depletion and trait self-control on thoughts and fears of dying.

Nine studies (N = 979) demonstrated that managing the threat of death requires self-regulation. Both trait and state self-control ability moderated the degree to which people experienced death-related thought and anxiety. Participants high (vs. low) in self-control generated fewer death-related thoughts after being primed with death, reported less death anxiety, were less likely to perceive death-related themes in ambiguous scenes, and reacted with less worldview defense when mortality was made salient. Further, coping with thoughts of death led to self-regulatory fatigue. After writing about death versus a control topic, participants performed worse on several measures of self-regulation that were irrelevant to death. These results suggest that self-regulation is a key intrapsychic mechanism for alleviating troublesome thoughts and feelings about mortality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of psychodiagnostic labels, depression severity, and instructions on assessment.

Previous research suggests that the accuracy with which clinicians assess normal behavior may be impaired by inaccurate clinical labels. We examined the impact of a psychodiagnostic label on the accuracy of assessment of normal behavior and abnormal behavior that were either consistent or inconsistent with the label. Practicing psychologists observed three videotapes depicting intake interviews with three "clients" and provided DSM-III diagnoses and observational data after each videotape. We provided half of the subjects with traditional diagnostic instructions and the other half with behavioral assessment instructions. The label had either a neutral or negative effect, depending on its relation to the behaviors portrayed; the presence of the label decreased diagnostic accuracy for the normal client. Moreover, for the normal client, the diagnostic data were more susceptible to bias than were the behavioral assessment data. We suggest that a focus on specific behaviors, as opposed to global diagnostic impressions, helps clinicians to minimize potential biasing effects of inaccurate labels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of caffeine on anxiety and depression.

Administered the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List to 157 Ss (mean age, 24.88 yrs) both before and 1 hr after double-blind administrations of 0, 150, or 300 mg of caffeine per 45.36 kg and after controlling for caffeine tolerance. Caffeine increased anxiety, depression, and hostility. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of self-control training on study activity and academic performance: An analysis of self-monitoring, self-reward, and systematic-planning components.

Examined the relative efficacy of training in self-monitoring, self-reward, and planning as aids to self-control. 96 university students who, prior to treatment, did not differ on measures of scholastic achievement or study habits, were assigned to 6 groups, including a control group that received no treatment. Ss in the 5 treatment groups received training in a standard study method (SQ3R) and received different degrees of training in the components of self-control. Dependent measures included time spent studying, number of assigned study tasks completed, and change from pretreatment to posttreatment on quiz scores, GPA, and a standard measure (Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes) of study habits. Results indicate that neither training in self-monitoring alone nor self-monitoring plus self-reward techniques yielded significantly better performance than training in study methods alone. The group that received training in self-monitoring, self-reward, and planning strategies significantly outperformed other groups on nearly all measures. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)