Implications of climate-smart strategy adoption by farm households for food security in Tanzania

As the climate changes, farmers in developing countries seek to employ strategies to help them sustain food production. The objectives of this paper were to identify adaptation strategies in response to climate change and the determinants for their adoption, and to explore the impact of these strategies on food security. The analysis was based on a survey of 900 small-scale farmers in a semi-arid (Dodoma) and a semi-humid (Morogoro) region in Tanzania. Farmers in the semi-humid region tended to diversify their crops, i.e. added additional crop types. Given the more challenging environment in the semi-arid region, farmers there changed their portfolio of crops, i.e. substituted some crops or cultivars with others. Logistic regressions highlighted higher tolerance to risk, land ownership, education and experiences of farmers as drivers of adoption, while income diversification had a negative effect. The propensity score matching approach showed that adopters of climate-smart strategies are on-average more food-secure. These users showed a more diverse pattern of food consumption, greater protein intake and better economic access to food. Changing crop portfolios can help households to cope with climate-related shocks such as droughts and thus appears to be the best performing strategy, especially in terms of more stable food provisioning throughout the year.     

Impact of a homestead gardening program on household food security and empowerment of women in Bangladesh

This paper assesses the additional benefits of a homestead gardening program designed to control vitamin A deficiency in Bangladesh. In February and March 2002, data were collected on the food security and social status of women from 2,160 households of active and former participants in the gardening program and from control groups in order to assess the impact and sustainability of the program. The proportions of active and former-participant households that gardened year-round were fivefold and threefold, respectively, higher than that of the control group (78% and 50% vs. 15%). In a three-month period, the households of active participants produced a median of 135 kg and consumed a median of 85 kg of vegetables, while the control households produced a median of 46 kg and consumed a median of 38 kg (p <.001). About 64% of the active-participant households generated a median garden income of 347 taka (US$1 = 51 taka), which was spent mainly on food, and 25% of the control households generated 200 taka in the same period (p < .001). The garden production and income levels of formerly participating households three years after withdrawal of program support were much higher than those of the control households, illustrating the sustainability of the program and its ability to increase household food security. Significantly more women in active- and former-participant households than in control households perceived that they had increased their economic contribution to their households since the time the program was launched in their subdistricts (> 85% vs. 52%). Similar results were found for the level of influence gained by women on household decision-making. These results highlight the multiple benefits that homestead gardening programs can bring and demonstrate that these benefits should be considered when selecting nutritional and development approaches targeting poor households.     

Exploring the profitability of improved storage technologies and their potential impacts on food security and income of smallholder farm households in Tanzania

This study assesses the profitability of selected improved grain storage technologies and the potential impact of their adoption on food security and income of smallholder maize producers in Tanzania. We used on-farm experiment data, time series maize price data, and household survey data to address the objectives. For the improved technologies, we considered Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags, metallic silos of different sizes, and polypropylene (PP) bags treated with Actellic Super®. We compared them with PP bags without insecticide treatment as the control. Results show that PICS bags and PP bags plus Actellic Super are profitable in all locations and not significantly different. While the feasible period varies by location, profit is most likely negative if farmers sell their maize in the first two months after harvest and in the last two months before the next harvest. There are mixed results with regards to the profitability of metallic silos; bigger silos are profitable for farmers who have economies of scale to use them while smaller ones are profitable only within the context of higher grain price and bigger seasonal price gap. The results also show that PICS bags (or PP bags plus Actellic Super) are useful to address food security and income objectives among poor rural households whereas metallic silos with bigger storage capacity can increase the income of those farmers who have bigger surplus grain to sale.     

Exploring the impact of the 2008 global food crisis on food security among vulnerable households in rural South Africa

Recurring food crises endanger the livelihoods of millions of households in developing countries around the globe. Owing to the importance of this issue, we explored recent changes in food security between the years 2004 and 2010 in a rural district in Northeastern South Africa. Our study window spans the time of the 2008 global food crisis and allows the investigation of its impacts on rural South African populations. Grounded in the sustainable livelihood framework, we examined differences in food security trajectories among vulnerable sub populations. A unique panel data set of 8,147 households, provided by the Agincourt Health and Demographic Surveillance System (Agincourt HDSS), allowed us to employ a longitudinal multilevel modeling approach to estimate adjusted growth curves for the differential changes in food security across time. We observed an overall improvement in food security that leveled off after 2008, most likely resulting from the global food crisis. In addition, we discovered significant differences in food security trajectories for various sub populations. For example, female-headed households and those living in areas with better access to natural resources differentially improved their food security situation, compared to male-headed households and those households with lower levels of natural resource access. However, former Mozambican refugees witnessed a decline in food security. Therefore, poverty alleviation programs for the Agincourt region should work to improve the food security of vulnerable households, such as former Mozambican refugees.     

Integrated rice-fish farming in Bangladesh: meeting the challenges of food security

In order to meet the soaring demand for food, there is a need to increase rice and fish production in Bangladesh. In spite of the potential for rice-fish farming, rice monoculture remains the main farming system in Bangladesh. However, rice monoculture cannot provide a sustainable food supply without a cost to long-term environmental sustainability. We provide evidence that integrated rice-fish farming can play an important role in increasing food production as the integrated farming system is better than rice monoculture in terms of resource utilization, diversity, productivity, and both the quality and quantity of the food produced. The Cobb-Douglas production function model also suggests that higher yields can be achieved by increasing inputs in the integrated farming system. Integrated rice-fish farming also provides various socioeconomic and environmental benefits. Nevertheless, only a small number of farmers are involved in integrated rice-fish farming due to a lack of technical knowledge, and an aversion to the risks associated with flood and drought. We conclude that integrated rice-fish farming can help Bangladesh keep pace with the current demand for food through rice and fish production but requires greater encouragement if it is to realize its full potential.     

The Brazilian food security scale for indigenous Guarani households: Development and validation

In Brazil there are 817,963 Indigenous people distributed across 305 ethnic groups, and speaking 274 different languages. The objective of this paper was to develop and validate an experience-based household food security measurement scale among the Guarani people. A mixed-methods study was conducted between 2007 and 2012 in four Guarani communities located on the coast of Sao Paulo. The qualitative phase involved developing an 11-item scale in full consultation and partnership with representatives from the Indigenous communities. Psychometric testing was conducted in 3 villages from 2011 to 2012 by applying the scale predominantly to adult women. Selected nutritional and social indicators were collected for testing the scale’s external validity. Psychometric testing was done with the Rasch model (N?=?88). Severity scores of items followed the theoretically expected ranking order. Nine out of the 11 scale items had an adequate fit to the whole scale (“infit” values ranging from 0.8 to 1.3). Three of these 9 items had severity scores that were very similar to other scale items indicating redundancy of information and thus two of them were dropped from the scale. The final scale was translated into Guarani confirming the face validity of questions and response options for households with children and adolescents. In conclusion, it was possible to develop a valid experience-based Brazilian Food Security Scale for Indigenous Guarani People (EBIA-G) that can now be tested among diverse Indigenous groups in the country.     

Impacts of community-based fish culture in seasonal floodplains on income,food security and employment in Bangladesh

This paper examines the impact of community based fish culture in seasonal floodplains on fish production, consumption, income, and food security of the participating households in Bangladesh. An analysis was performed using a randomly selected 46 % of the households from the three project and control floodplains; data were collected using longitudinal surveys on a seasonally, quarterly and monthly basis for the years 2007, 2008 and 2009. Fish production, income and food security of the participating households was improved due to the adoption of an equitable and inclusive multi-stakeholder approach introduced by the project. Average fish production increased from 124 kg/ha/yr. to 464 kg/ha/yr. The introduced community-based fish culture approach generated 3.74 times more fish income for households in the project sites in comparison to the control sites. Per capita monthly fish consumption increased from 1.26 kg to 2.31 kg in the project sites, which was 32 % higher than the control sites. Project implementation reduced the vulnerability of local beneficiaries, particularly of the landless and poor fishermen, by creating additional fishing opportunity for up to 6 months of the year. Promotion of the community based fish culture in seasonal floodplains may thus be useful in bringing about positive changes in the overall floodplain productivity and livelihood gains for the poor people of Bangladesh.     

A typology of farm households for the Umutara Province in Rwanda

For nearly 30 years, technologies for more sustainable land use have been developed and promoted in Rwanda. However, these technologies have not been fully adopted. Keeping in mind that the farming population is not homogeneous with respect to socio-economic variables, this paper typifies farm households in Umutara province based on socio-economic factors influencing the adoption of new technology. A multivariate analysis approach that combines Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis allowed us to identify clearly five types of farm households and their socio-economic characteristics. The main differences between the five farm types relate to gender, age, education, risk perception, risk attitude, labour availability, land tenure and income. The five farm types are characterized by respectively having a female head (26% of the farms), being a tenant (7%), having a male and literate head (32%), having an illiterate head with no off-farm activities (18%), and being a large farm with livestock (17%). The respective farm types appeared to have adopted different types of sustainable technologies to a limited extent. Female-headed households adopted the use of compost and green manure. Young male literate farmers were the only ones using chemical fertilizers. Illiterate and full-time farmers applied fallow, manure and erosion control measures to maintain soil fertility. The use of improved livestock is adopted by large farms.     

Female-headed households and food insecurity in Brazil

The National Household Survey carried out in 2009 by Brazil??s bureau of the census contains information on a representative sample of 121,708 households. The questionnaire includes items that enable us to identify households that experience moderate and severe degrees of food insecurity. The results of logistic regression analyses support the hypothesis that the odds of food insecurity are higher among female-headed households compared to male-headed households. Net of statistical controls for region, urban residence, age, monthly per capita household income, and five indicators of the internal composition of the household, the odds of moderate and severe food insecurity are, respectively, 32?% and 16?% higher among households headed by women compared to households headed by men. Further analyses show that the likelihood of food insecurity increases with presence of young children 0?C10?years of age and older children 11?C18?years of age. The importance of intra-household characteristics is confirmed by results that show that the odds of both moderate and severe food insecurity increase with additional adult males but decrease with additional adult females. Evidence that the presence of adult females reduces food insecurity is consistent with studies of gender differences in household decision making which show that, compared to men, women??s spending patterns have a greater positive effect on the welfare of children and other members of the household. The conclusions are discussed in the context of the poverty and hunger alleviation initiatives in Brazil??s new social policy agenda.     

Impact of a participatory agroecological development project on household wealth and food security in Malawi

This paper presents the impacts of a participatory agroecological development project on food security and wealth levels. The Malawi Farmer to Farmer Agroecology project (MAFFA) encourages farmer experimentation, community involvement and farmer-to-farmer teaching on agroecology, nutrition and gender equity. Recent international assessments of agriculture have highlighted the urgent need for changes in farming practices in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to land degradation, high levels of food insecurity and anticipated climate change impacts. Agroecological approaches have shown great potential to address these multiple needs. Using a longitudinal panel survey data and propensity score matching to account for selection bias in project participation, we analyzed the impact of the project on household income and food security in Malawi in 2012 (Wave 1 = 1200 households) and in 2014 (Wave 2 = 1000 households). We used the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for impact evaluation. Estimates of average treatment-effects using difference in difference methods showed that participating in MAFFA has led to a significant increase in household wealth (β = 3.54, p = 0.01) and a large reduction in food insecurity (β = ?3.21, p = 0.01) compared to non-participants, after 2 years, even after accounting for covariates and selection bias. These results indicate that agroecological methods combined with farmer led knowledge exchanges can be welfare enhancing, both in terms of food security and in terms of income for family farm households. Agroecological approaches should be promoted through upscaling of farmer-to-farmer knowledge exchanges, community involvement and attention to nutrition and social equity to enhance farmer learning and household welfare benefits.     

“He said, she said”: who should speak for households about experiences of food insecurity in Bangladesh?

This paper examines the extent to which males and females from the same household respond differently to household food insecurity questions, and explores the reasons for these differences and the impact for measurement. The data derive from the 2001–2003 Bangladesh Food Insecurity Measurement and Validation Study. Male and female enumerators administered the food insecurity questionnaire to women and men in the same household during three survey rounds and debriefed a subsample of men and women regarding their response discrepancies. The rate of discordance in male-female responses to individual items was examined using contingency tables. Potential explanations for the discordance were informed by the joint respondent debriefing. These hypotheses were assessed through an examination of response patterns. To assess the impact of discordance on measurement, female and male responses to a scale of 13 food insecurity items were compared and the degree of differential classification was assessed. On average the rate of discordance was 15%, but it ranged for particular items from less than 1% to upwards of 53%. Item content interacted with gender to produce discordance; women and men seemed to respond differently due to separate spheres of responsibility within the same household, power imbalances influencing intra-household food allocation, and because men seemed to take more psychological responsibility for ensuring the household food supply. Nearly one-third of households were classified in a different food security category using female versus male responses to the items. The results suggest that the household food insecurity construct is not as useful in places like Bangladesh where certain food insecurity-related manifestations are not collectively or similarly shared by members of the same living space. Individual-level measures of food insecurity are needed to complement household data, along with surveys that allow for proportionate representation of potentially vulnerable individuals with different demographic characteristics across the population.     

基于食品供应链的食品安全保障机制研究

在对建立食品供应链安全保障机制必要性进行分析的基础上,文章提出了解决我国当前食品安全问题的管理机制、追溯机制、预警反应机制和利益分配机制等保障机制.     

我国食品安全质量问题及对策

食品安全问题是新世纪我国社会发展面临的重要问题之一。阐述食品安全的内涵、问题由来以及提高食品安全性的重要意义,并指出从国家和个人两个角度解决食品安全问题的对策。     

Impact of improved maize adoption on household food security of maize producing smallholder farmers in Ethiopia

In recent years, maize has gained prominence as an important staple crop in Ethiopia second only to teff in terms of acreage. Most of this is grown by semi-subsistence farm households whose livelihoods are tied to crop production and some livestock keeping. Therefore, an important policy question concerns the impact that the reported maize revolution has had on household food security. This paper answers that question by examining the empirical regularities that explain the adoption of improved maize varieties (IMVs) and how this has impacted household food security in a sample of 2327 maize producing households in 39 districts of Ethiopia. An endogenous switching regression model supported by the dose-response continuous treatment effect method was used to empirically assess the impact of IMV adoption on per capita food consumption expenditure and perceived household food security status. Results show that IMV adoption has a robust and positive impact on per capita food consumption and also significantly increases the probability of a smallholder being in food surplus. The advances in the adoption of improved maize has thus contributed significantly to the food security of maize producing smallholders, confirming the role of crop improvement in contributing to food security of agrarian households.     

Aflatoxin contamination in food commodities in Bangladesh

During September 2009, we performed a rapid cross-sectional study to investigate the extent of aflatoxin contamination among common Bangladeshi foods. We collected eight common human food commodities (rice, lentils, wheat flour, dates, betelnut, red chili powder, ginger and groundnuts) and poultry feed samples from two large markets in each of three cities in Bangladesh. We quantified aflatoxin levels from pooled subsamples using fluorescence high-performance liquid chromatography. Aflatoxin levels were highest in dates and groundnuts (maximum 623 and 423?ng/g), respectively. Samples of betelnut (mean 30.6?ng/g), lentils (mean 21.2?ng/g) and red chili powder (>20?ng/g) also had elevated levels. The mean aflatoxin level among poultry feed samples was 73.0?ng/g. Aflatoxin levels were above the US maximum regulatory levels of 20?ng/g in five of eight commonly ingested human food commodities tested.     

我国近期粮食安全形势分析

粮食安全（保障）指一个国家或地区有充足的粮食生产、进出口贸易与经济财政能力,以获取足够的粮食来维持本国或本地区人民生活及其它社会需求。粮食安全可从宏观与微观两个层面来进行分析。宏观层次的粮食安全可通过全球及整个国家粮食获取能力来反映,主要包括一个国家的粮食生产量、粮食储备量、食物净进口量（包括国际粮食援助）等。微观层次的粮食安全反映在家庭和个人的粮食获取能力上,而家庭和个人的粮食获取能力取决家庭的全部收入,即现金收入、自产自用实物收入及自我提供的劳务。家庭获取粮食的途径包括自家生产、市场购买、救…     

The impact of the homestead food garden programme on food security in South Africa

The South African government has implemented homestead food garden (HFG) programmes directed at enhancing food production in order to reduce food insecurity, malnutrition, poverty and hunger. The present paper evaluated the impact of this programme on household food insecurity using surveys of 500 households. Endogenous switching regression, propensity score matching and household food insecurity average scores were employed in our analysis. Our findings demonstrated that participation in an HFG programme could significantly enhance the food security status of participants by increasing household food supply and consumption as well as by income derived from selling any excess production from the garden. Specifically, our empirical findings showed that participation in the HFG programme significantly reduced food insecurity among rural households by as much as 41.5%. Therefore, we recommend that policy makers should encourage more rural households to participate in the programme in order to reduce their food insecurity. Facilitating easy access to credit, extension services, fertilizer, irrigation facilities and land are policy options needed to promote farmers participation in HFG programmes. Furthermore, the formation of farmer-based organizations and the building of positive perceptions about HFGs are some of the key policy options that can be employed to improve households’ participation in the programme. Promotion of education, participating in off-farm activities, access to market, irrigation, extension and credit, and adoption of fertiliser are some policy interventions that can reduce food insecurity among rural house holds whether or not they participate in the HFG programme.